Cosmonautics
By Dennis Newkirk
COPYRIGHT 1996 by CSPACE PRESS INC. All rights reserved
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Spring 1996
INTERNATIONAL SPACE STATION
FGB Damaged in Test
The first element of the International Space Station (ISS),
the FGB module, was damaged Dec. 9, 1995 during a pressurization
test at the factory - the Khrunichev State Space Science and
Production Center. The damage was reportedly the result of human
error during the test. The FGB is being purchased by NASA under a
contract managed by Boeing and will perform propulsion, guidance
and storage for early phases of the station assembly. Khrunichev's
officials said the damaged section of the pressure hull would be
replaced at no cost and would not effect the schedule for
completing the module. The repair was completed on March 19.
Assembly is to be completed by November 1996 followed by
electrical and sub-system tests until April 1997, shipment by rail
to Baykonur in May, shipment of its Proton booster in August and a
final launch readiness review in October before the scheduled
November 1997 launch.
Mir-ISS Proposal Rejected
The damage did not come at a good time as Russian officials
were trying to pitch a redesign of the ISS by basing station
assembly on the existing Mir complex to reduce Russian costs. The
idea had been discussed in secret by high level NASA and RSA
managers since the summer of 1995. On November 13, the general
director of Khrunichev unexpectedly announced the plan publicly in
the Russian press. The plan with some variations included
launching the FGB and docking the US Node 1 to it, then flying the
assembly to dock to Mir's forward docking port. Some or all of the
existing Mir modules would have been retained and reduce the need
to build and launch a new core and lab modules as originally
planned, saving a great deal of money for the Russians. Khrunichev
was also willing to commit a backup FGB module to the plan to use
as a new lab module. The proposal could also cost less and provide
faster permanent manned operations, depending on how many elements
of the original ISS that were retained. It was also believed by
the Russians that there was support for this plan at the Johnson
Space Center.
Khrunichev stood to profit with the new plan by eliminating
the originally planned RKK Energia Zenit launched lab modules
which is a competitor to Khrunichev's FGB based lab modules. One
drawback to the plan would be the eventual need to replace the Mir
core due to its age, the Russians envisioned replacing the core
module about 2002, but being the hub of the new station this would
be difficult without disassembling the station. The plan also
could not generate the same amount of power as the original plan
and there could have been clearance problems with the old Mir
modules and new ISS elements.
Early in 1996 the Russians formally presented to NASA two
different variations of the Mir-ISS plan. NASA countered with a
third option which included supporting both Mir and ISS at the
same time with some additional NASA support. Supporting Mir during
ISS assembly would allow more commercial flights to Mir earning
the Russians much needed cash. There was immediate resistance to
the proposal from the US Congress. With additional direct funding
from NASA out of the question for to political reasons, Koptev
presented the option to aid the Russian space industry by
relaxation of the unilateral US quota on Russian launch of Western
built geostationary satellites. The combination would allow Russia
to generate enough profits to support the space industry.
Then Russian First Vice Premier O. Soskovets hosted a
delegation from the US lead by Congressman James Sensenbrenner.
Sensenbrenner explained that the original promises made to
Congress about ISS funding and schedule must be kept in order to
maintain funding for the program. Any changes, even those
seemingly saving money, can actually cost more by causing rework
of the plans already completed. Soskovets decided that the RSA
should not pursue its Mir-ISS proposal any further, meanwhile they
would examine the NASA 'third' option and the US government would
consider raising the Russian launch quota.
For a year ILS (a Lockheed Martin lead joint venture
including Khrunichev and RKK Energia) which markets the Proton
booster to the West had been seeking increased limits on Russian
launches similar to more recent limits imposed on China and
Ukraine. Orders have been poring into ILS which had already signed
agreements to provide more launches than allowed under the
original US quota.
The sixth meeting of the Gore-Chernomyrdin commission
(Russian-U.S. Commission on Economic and Technological
Cooperation) included signing of agreements for cooperation on the
Mars-96 mission due for launch in Nov. 1996, a new high level
agreement on a new ISS plan of milestones, and a raising of launch
quotas on the Proton to match the Ukranian and Chinese agreements.
The new ISS plan was directly linked to extending the Phase 1
Shuttle-Mir missions. In order to aid the Russians in making money
to satisfy Koptev's request, NASA decided to help extend the life
of Mir by resupplying it with 2 additional Shuttle docking
missions while the ISS is being assembled and resupplied by
Russia.
ISS Changed to Prevent Changes
Despite the Congressional insistence that changes could not
be made to the ISS plan, changes were made including launching the
Russian Science Power Platform (SSP; consisting of solar arrays
and attitude control equipment) by a shuttle and not by 3 Zenits
as originally planned although the Russians would still launch its
solar panels. In return the Russians would modify the Soyuz to fit
the half of the astronaut corps which are restricted from the
current design.
The Zenit launched Progress-M2 and lab modules (originally
planned by RKK Energia) were cut from the plan, instead a slightly
upgraded Progress-M will be developed to add about 440 lb. to its
payload (presumably this will come from the Soyuz-2 booster being
developed under the Rus project). For major resupply of ISS
Khrunichev would build FGB Cargo Vehicle's (probably also to
double as lab modules when depleted of propellents). The FGB Cargo
Vehicle would be identical to the FGB except lacking for the
multiple docking node. One Cargo Vehicle would be launched each
year in place of up to 5 of the previously planned Progress M2.
In a related agreement the first crew of the ISS, to be
launch in May 1998, was announced as William Shepherd and Sergei
Krikalev with a third crewman yet to be named. There has been much
debate about who will 'command' the space station (for the Soyuz
flight to Mir it is agreed that Krikalev would command it although
he will be new to the role as commander since his previous flights
were as a Flight Engineer). NASA officials seem to think Shepherd
would command the station while Russian officials believe no
decision has been made yet. It seems unavoidable that the
'command' will be a joint one (just as many of the ISS management
boards for the ISS are co-chaired by US and Russian members).
Shephard will train in Russia in February and March of 1996 with
dedicated preflight training starting in April and last for 2 year
in Russia and the USA.
All the new plans were to be discussed in detail in March
during meetings at JSC in Houston. The shuttle flights move some
US resources from ISS to Mir in 1998 and as a result add some cost
or delay to ISS. So in the end what has been accomplished if
NASA's demand was no more cost or delay? The Russians would have
gained a great deal of control of the ISS had Mir been used as a
starting point. Westling even some control from Russia would have
been very hard for NASA for it would have been difficult to draw
the line between when operations of a joint Mir-ISS were Mir
related and when they were ISS related. NASA has proved it is in
overall control of the project, and has removed the political risk
of using the aging Mir with ISS, at least for the present. NASA
has also set the precedent that they will trade support for
concessions in lieu of direct financial support.
As all these political moves were being made while quiet
progress was made on hardware. Over 80,000 lb. of module hulls
were completed by the first of 1996. The US Node 1, Node 2 and the
US Lab module interiors were being outfitted with mounting
hardware and hatches. Next stop for the modules is pressure tests
and painting. Node 1 eventually will be delivered to the KSC Space
Station Integration Facility for preparations for launch in
November 1997. The US Habitation module is about 4 months behind
the Lab module in the manufacturing process.
More Russian Funding Problems
RSA Chief Yuri Koptev said that work on the ISS Service
module had fallen behind schedule in early 1996 and $40 Million
additional funding (some reports said $200 Million) would be
needed to correct the problem. The Service module is a clone of
the Mir module and will serve as living quarters for the first
crews of the ISS.
A meeting was held to discuss Russian government funding of
the space industry on Feb. 8 at which Yuri Koptev said 1.5
Trillion Roubles planned for 1996 would not be enough to maintain
current systems like the needed replacement of 7 aging
communications satellites, and certainly not enough for new
systems like the ISS. Contradicting his earlier statements, he
said commercial contracts would not be sufficient to make up the
shortfall and that the amount of Russian funding needed to be
doubled. Koptev also made dire warnings about the space
infrastructure degrading to dangerous states, and the possibility
that the space program could be bankrupt in months (the same kind
of comments were also made a year ago). Russian space expert Maxim
Tarasenko characterized the program as nearly totally reliant on
reserves and the foreign funding for satellite launches and
visiting flights to Mir.
Dan Goldin was grilled in Congress about Russia's
contribution to the station in January. Goldin said about the
problems, "Now, we could work with that for a short period of
time, but a deal is a deal is a deal, ... it is very important
that this program not be looked upon as a money sink to save the
Russian space agency.''. He said they should be given a year to
work out the problems and that there was progress begin made.
On March 11 Goldin's concerns were voiced by Vice President Al
Gore in a letter to Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin to take
steps to insure steady funding of Russian elements needed in the
first years of assembly of the station. Chernomyrdin visited
Khrunichev to discuss the funding problems. Khrunichev was
receiving only 30% of its funding from government sources and the
government was running 437 Billion Roubles behind in 1996 payments
to the space sector out of a total year budget of 1.5 Trillion
Roubles.
Soon after this meeting Dan Goldin updated Congress saying in
slightly nicer terms that the Russians had been given an ultimatum
that the funding be delivered to Khrunichev within 6 weeks or face
ending the cooperation agreements for the ISS. The Service module
schedule was to be approved by April, project status was to be
reviewed in June, assembly completed by February 1997, integration
testing completed by December and launched in April 1998.
In late March discussions were also underway on the replanned
Russian ISS contributions. The FGB Cargo Vehicle, now renamed the
Logistics Transfer Vehicle (LTV), was one of the components under
review. The LTV is the same as the FGB but without the docking
node, its remaining active docking probe will dock to the rear of
the Russian Service module and refuel the FGB through the Service
module. The only other major change is the movement of the 2 main
engines to forward end verses the aft end as on the FGB.
Preliminarily, the LTV will weigh 10,800 kg. at launch and carry
up to 7200 kg. dry cargo or 6000 kg. of propellant, as long as the
total is less than 8500 kg.. A short set of solar arrays will
provide 2700 KW power and there will be 93 cubic meters internal
volume. Fabrication of the first vehicle should last from around
December 1996 to September 1998.
STS-MIR (PHASE 1) MISSIONS
New Shuttle Missions to Mir
STS-89 (Jan. 1998) and STS-91 (May 1998) were added to the
manifest to resupply Mir and transport 2 additional NASA
astronauts and possibly cosmonauts to Mir for long duration
missions. The missions will be an extension of currently planned
missions using the same experiment apparatus and possibly adding
some new ones. The joint solar dynamic power system planned to be
deployed after STS-86 may be delayed since it would obstruct the
shuttle docking port. Both new missions are to be flown by
Discovery which will have to be outfitted with the same docking
equipment that Atlantis has been carrying for the last year.
Atlantis will be dedicated to flying to the ISS at the time of the
Phase 1 extension missions.
Astronauts in Training
Contrasted with the continuing problems in funding and
defining joint work on the ISS, shuttle flights to Mir (Phase 1 of
ISS) have proceeded perfectly, except for a few minor oddities
like the story of astronaut Scott Parazynski. He was known to
exceed the measurement requirements to fit the standard Soyuz
seat's but spent 2 months training in Russia anyway. NASA knew
height measurements had not been a hard requirement and seats had
been modified in the past for at least 5 cosmonauts but as
negotiations over ISS Phase 2, got more tense the Russians added
the Soyuz seat modification to demands for more NASA funding. NASA
would not vary from the planned funding and withdrew Parazynski
from training and hurriedly replaced them in November. Michael
Foale arrived at the Cosmonaut Training Center on Nov. 27, 1995.
In March, Wendy Lawrence replaced Charles Precourt in the
continuing rotation of NASA manager's in Star City. Precourt then
started training at JSC for STS-84 while astronauts John Blaha,
Jerry Linenger, Michael Foale and James Voss continue training for
long duration missions on Mir.
STS-74
STS-74 in November of 1996 was highly successful in
delivering and docking the Russian built Docking module to Mir's
Kristall module. STS-74 also benefited from new data links made
between Houston and Kaliningrad mission controls. A remote site of
JSC mission control was setup in Kaliningrad in November and a
complementary link at JSC was setup in early 1996. The solar
arrays delivered on the docking module seem to be suffering from
the typical delays of Mir operations as their planned deployment
has been pushed back since the need is not pressing. It is
doubtful the MCSA array will be deployed anytime in 1996 since it
will only replace an existing array which is functioning fine. The
first EVA to setup a second Strela crane on Mir was completed on
March 15. It will be used to eventually move the solar arrays to
Kvant.
Priroda Delayed
Priroda is to carry about 1000 kg. of NASA equipment,
including a shuttle glove box, a microgravity isolation mount for
experiments (a magnetic levitation device), a mass spectrometer
for life sciences, and resupplies for other NASA experiments in
Mir and Spectr. The Priroda launch was planned for March, before
STS-76, then it was pushed back to early April when delivery to
Baykonur was expected to be 3 weeks later than the expected Dec.
20th date. Officially the launch date was set as March 10, and
this was to be achieved by shortening launch preparations. Other
sources stated a likely date was April, and later this became mid-
April. In March it was in the vacuum chamber for testing and the
launch date slipped further to late April (probably due to the
Astra Proton launch slipping). NASA learned of the first delays in
the fall 1995 and the program was replanned to take that into
account because Shannon Lucid was to use the equipment on Priroda
but until it arrives, she will perform other science with
experiments in the Spectr module until Priroda arrives.
Mir-21 & STS-76
STS-76 delivered Shannon Lucid to Mir in March when she
became a member of the Mir-21 crew. In November 1995 there was an
odd report from ITAR-TASS stating that Blaha and Lucid had
exchanged places, the report went on to say that NASA had decided
the mission was too difficult a task for a woman, the report was
not true. Her mission has 41 investigations total (1 material
processing using a Mir furnace, 8 Earth Science studies 6 using
Priroda, 2 biology investigations, 10 life science studies, 10 ISS
risk mitigation investigations (structures & dynamics related), 8
microgravity studies, and 2 Space science experiments). During
the mission an EVA was performed to deploy the Mir Environmental
Effects Payloads (MEEP). The astronauts were only to go as far as
the Kristall module docking port on the docking module since they
had never been trained to do EVA on Mir modules. STS-76 delivered
several pieces of cargo including 1400 lb. of water, 1628.8 lb. of
US experiments, 1937.7 lb. of Russian cargo including a gryodyne,
Mir batteries, a Soyuz seat liner for Lucid, half a STS locker of
items for Mir crew from the RSA and their families, and 206.4 lb
of food, cloths, experiments and experiment supplies for Lucid's
stay on Mir. During the mission other useful odds and ends
available on Atlantis were left on Mir like printer paper. On
return, Atlantis carried back to Earth 245 lb. of US experiment
results, 526.4 lb. of Russian logistics, and 239.7 lb. of other
items.
As a result of Norm Thagard's comments on NASA's first Mir
mission added communications abilities were added for Lucids's
mission. NASA added email from family via a commercial account
checked in Kaliningrad mission control, a 15 minute weekly video
uploads of news, and 15 minute audio updates 3 times a week, a
family conference every week and a family video session every 2
weeks if possible, a NASA public affairs officer interactive
session on planning & interviews. To monitor Lucid's mental
adjustments to the flight NASA will rely on Russian observations
as they would monitor any visiting cosmonaut. Yuri Glazkov said
that RKK Energia has learned from Thagard's flight that long term
visiting cosmonauts should be included in all Russian activities
including station maintenance and activities other than just
science experiments. This will be done on Lucid's mission.
More International Mir Missions
Mir continued to host the ESA EuroMir crew during the first
of the 1996. In January, they completed repairs to the Kvant
thermoregulation system which sprang a leak last year. In
February, Mir celebrated its 10th year in orbit. The Mir complex
was still not complete with the Priroda module launch being
regularly pushed back throughout the early months of 1996. After
much speculation on Feb. 29 a second EVA for Thomas Reiter was
added to the mission due to its 44 day extension after production
of the 15 Billion Rouble Soyuz booster was delayed. The mission
extension from 180 to 152 days was taken from the next missions
crew (Mir-21) so as not to upset the schedules of succeeding
missions.
Lucid became the first American astronaut to train with 4
different flight crews for her mission. She was launched with STS-
76, will spend months on Mir with the Mir-21 crew, will spend some
weeks with the Mir-22 crew along with French astronaut Claudie
Andre-Deshays, then she will be retrieved by the STS-79 crew and
replaced by John Blaha. The French Cassiopeia 2 week mission
follows on several French missions to Soviet/Russian space
stations. The French are paying $16.4 Million, which is split
evenly between RKK Energia and the Cosmonaut Training Center.
French and German cosmonauts are currently in training for flights
to Mir in 1996.
RKK Energia has been progress lining up new international
flights at the end of 1995. Talks with the Korean Broadcasting
Corp. have progressed to the final stages of writing an agreement.
Flight candidates (Park Chan Wook and Kim Cheol Min) have been
selected by the Koreans for training in Star City in early 1996 if
the agreement is completed. The flight would be in 1997 or 1998
and possibly last 3 months, but a 2 week flight is much more
likely. In related business, Russia is negotiating arms sales of
S-300 missiles to South Korea to eliminate $1.47 billion debt owed
from a 1990 loan to the USSR. An expansion of a 5 year old program
of 79 wide ranging technical cooperation projects was also
formulated in Oct. 1995 including materials, biotechnology and
fusion reactor research.
South Africa has been in similar negotiations with Russia
signing 14 agreements promoting cooperation in several industries
and the military. The Russians also offered to train and fly a
South African cosmonaut by 1999 to Mir which surprised the
negotiators, but they accepted the offer, and will become the
first African nation to send someone into space. In late 1995, the
RSA denied that it had been in any official negotiations with
either South Korea or South Africa but in February 1996 confirmed
negotiations were underway. Apparently, Koptev did not want to
publicly announce the projects until NASA had agreed to help
support Mir during the period of the flights in question. It is
well known that NASA considers any new international flights to
endanger the NASA Phase 1 program by dividing Russian resources
when the resources are dwindling, and the flights may raise
political trouble by creating the image of NASA helping Russia
make money with Mir.
HISTORY
Kosmos 398, the second Soviet lunar module (T2K-2) test
flight came to an end in December 1995. On Feb. 26, 1971, 8:06
A.M. the spacecraft was launched on a Soyuz booster inside a short
hammerhead type shroud into a 189 * 252 km orbit. The spacecraft
maneuvered by Feb. 28 to 186 * 1188 km. simulating a landing on
the moon. It then separated the landing gear attach ring (the gear
were not flown because they wouldn't fit inside the shroud) and
fired the main engine to maneuvered to 203 * 10903 km. simulating
ascent from the lunar surface. Controls were then exercised to
simulate stabilization and docking activities then the spacecraft
was powered down since it only had a battery power supply. The
spacecraft's weight at launch was estimated at about 7500 kg.. It
has been reported that taped voice messages were transmitted by
the spacecraft to test the communications system as was normal
practice on previous Soviet manned spacecraft test flights. The
spacecraft orbited in a highly elliptical orbit until Dec. 10 at
11:09 PM Moscow time when it reentered in daylight south of
Hawaii. It was believed a few small pieces of debris weighting up
to 200 kg. might hit the surface at 11:15 PM, including parts of
the engine and oxygen tanks. The only other Soviet manned lunar
program spacecraft in orbit are components of Kosmos 382.
LAUNCH SYSTEMS
Ukranian Launches Approved
After heavy pressure from US business President Clinton
finally approved a policy for launching US made satellites on
Ukranian boosters following a similar deal made with China. It was
signed on Feb. 21 in Washington after being drafted in December
1995 and following initiation of talks in November 1994. The deals
are all unilateral by the US to allow the unimpeded export and
import of equipment which could be considered munitions or in some
way harmful to the US. Without such a Presidential proclamation
any attempt to move equipment through US customs would be doomed
to failure. Some government officials had been holding up the
agreement since it could hurt US launch companies like McDonnell
Douglas (makers of the Delta) and Lockheed Martin (makers of Atlas
and Titan and marketers of the Proton). Satellite producers
prevailed since satellite sales are a much larger industry than
the US launch provider industry.
The Ukrainian deal was mainly made for the benefit of Hughes.
Ukraine can launch western satellites on its own, but the deal was
made just for Hughes which had made a deal with Yuzhnoye (Southern
Scientific Production Association) to launch 10 Hughes satellites
by 2001. In February, Ukranian officials visiting the USA signed
the launch agreement for the Globestar communications satellite
system giving the Zenit more business. Yuzhnoye's Zenit booster
was developed in the mid-1970's and is capable of putting 16,000
kg. into LEO and is known as the Zenit-2. The version Hughes wants
to use is the long planned Zenit-3 which has yet to fly, but uses
proven components.
Zenit - 2 2 stage booster could launch up to 16,000 kg.
to LEO, or a smaller payload up to 2000 km.
altitude (±3.5 km., 2.5 sec., 2.5 minutes
inclination), or 12,000 kg. payload to 200 km.
circular 90° orbit.. Weighs 460,000 kg on
launch.
Zenit - 3 (a Zenit - 2 with the RKK Energia Block-D
third stage), payload up to 1100 kg to
geostationary orbit (4500 kg. to GTO). Weight
on launch is 467,000 kg.
The agreement gives Ukraine the right to launch 16-20
geosynchronous satellites, including the 10 for Hughes, and
contains similar price guidelines as previous deals with Russian
and China. When the agreement was announced Hughes announced its
plan to form the Sea Launch joint venture to launch Zenits in the
Pacific from a 31,000-ton, 430-foot-long oil rig and a 34,000-
ton, 650-foot-long Assembly & Command Ship (ACS). The deal helps
Yuzhnoye keep up production of the Zenit while it has been dropped
from use in the ISS project where they would have launched
Progress-M2 and lab modules. Currently Yuzhnoye makes 1-2 boosters
for Russia a year costing 23 Billion roubles each, but will be
able to boost production to 6-8 which is desirable for efficient
production. It is estimated that 63% of the boosters components
are made in Russia.
Russian Launch Quota Raised
While the change effected the international launch market it
also upset the Russian industry which had sit by watching China
and then Ukraine get better quotas than the original Russian
quota. The issue was raised in the summer of 1995 in meeting of
the Gore-Chernomyrdin commission. Finally, at the January 1996
meeting a new agreement was made to raise the limits on the Proton
to match the other agreements (20 within 15% of average world
prices instead of the original 7%). The agreement was made in
association with the new ISS agreement. ILS already had negotiated
20 launch and option contacts before the new agreement was
finalized. The launches are worth about $1 Billion in through the
year 2000 of which Russian firms will receive up to $750 Million.
In August 1995, ILS and Matra Marconi Space announced plans for a
multiple satellite dispensing system for the Proton. Khrunichev
estimated that up to 70% more income could be derived from each
launch by using the system. In addition, a new payload adapter was
announced by Khrunichev for launching heavy payloads in the 2000
kg. range, specifically to support the Echostar launches in late
1996.
Meanwhile the Proton suffered a failure on Feb. 20 when a
Raduga communications satellite failed to be placed in to orbit by
its RKK Energia Block-D upper stage. The Block-D's second firing
failed and many fragments were tracked in orbit with the payload.
A special commission was established to determine the cause after
a week of investigation. The Astra-1F launch had to be delayed
from the first of March to the end March, and later to early
April. Khrunichev said the satellite delivery was late, the
satellite owners countered that facilities at Baykonur were not
ready in time for shipment of the satellite. The satellite as
finally delivered to Baykonur by a 747 landing on the runway built
for Buran space shuttles.
In early 1996, Koptev also warned of great danger if the
oldest Proton pads were not repaired at Baykonur. Estimates are
that 400 Billion Roubles are needed. Only 2 are presently in
operational condition, pad 81R is currently non-operational and
needing upgrades, pad 81L is operational for military use, pad
200R is non-operational and 200L is nearly out of usable life and
is the pad Koptev is complaining about. 200L is needed for all
commercial, Mir and ISS launches.
Space Booster Projects
Other launch services projects were also progressing, Rokot
Launch Services (a joint venture of Daimler Benz and Khrunichev)
plans to invest $30 million at Plesetsk for infrastructure at
launch Pad 133 in preparations for a 1997 launch. STC completed
its feasibility study on launching Start boosters in Australia
after scouting launch sites in spring 1995 and in March reached an
agreement to launch small communications and ecological satellites
into 400-800 km. orbits from the Woomera space center Australia in
the fall of 1998. The Cosmos Group also cooperated in the
agreement and is hoping to launch Kosmos boosters from Woomera.
The Angara is being held up by lack of funding despite the
military desire to push the program ahead by holding a meeting for
the second phase of the draft design in December 1995 at the
Central Science and Research Institute of the Russian Space Forces
near Moscow. The RSA did not attend even though they had agreed to
continue development of the Angara in 1994. Koptev himself used
the prospect of an Angara launch pad at Plesetsk as a better
alternative than development of Sovobodny but this opinion
apparently does not translate into real support for Angara. The
Angara-24 is to replace the Proton in 2005 by launching equivalent
payloads from Plesetsk pad 35. The first stage was to be built by
Yuzhnoye in Ukraine with NPO Energomash RD-170 engines, the second
stage by RKK Energia with Design Bureau of Chemical Automation RD-
0120 engines, strap-on fuel tanks for both the first and second
stage are to be made by the Makeyev Design Bureau State Rocket
Center, with Design Bureau of Transport Machine-building building
pad 35 and NII Khimmash doing ground tests.
Angara-24 2 stage booster could launch up to 25,000 kg.
to 200 km @ 63 degrees inclination Angara
Angara 3 stage booster (adding LH-LOX third stage
made for Proton-M) could launch up to 3500 kg.
to geostationary orbit. Weighs 640,000 kg on
launch.
Yeniesy 2 stage booster with standard Zenit second
stage from Yuzhnoye 18,000 kg. to 200 km @ 63
degrees inclination. Weighs 650,000 kg on
launch.
Neva 2 stage, using Angara 2nd and 3rd stages, 4100
kg. to 90 degrees inclination 200 km. orbit.
Weighs 140,000 kg. at launch. World's first
all LH-LOX booster.
Arianespace is also continuing periodic talks with the
Central Specialized Design Bureau for marketing rights or a joint
venture for Soyuz and Molyina boosters. Meanwhile, the Rus program
to develop the Soyuz-2 booster completed its engineering
development in November 1995. Extensive testing will continue in
the spring of 1996. The Soyuz-2 includes new engines for all
stages and optionally the Fregat upper stage from NPO Lavochkin.
In January, a Kosmos-3M booster was launched from Plesetsk with a
military payload in the first launch since a partial failure in
1995. The cause of the October 10, 1995 mishap was determined to
be an obstruction in an oxidizer pipe. While the launch did place
its payload into orbit it was much lower than planned severely
limiting the mission of the satellite.
SPACE CENTERS
Cosmonaut Training Center
In January, RKK Energia's cosmonaut corps was abolished along
with those of other institutes as the Energia group was
consolidated with Ar Force cosmonauts under the organization of
the Cosmonaut Training Center. Many positions were expected to be
eliminated in 1996. The Institute of Biomedical Problems in
cooperation with the ESA and NASA is continuing it long series of
isolation tests of 3 subjects simulating a flight to a space
station for 90 days, complete with visiting crews for short
periods. This latest test should have completed by early 1996 and
will contribute to research into managing the mental health of ISS
crews.
New Landing Area
In Sept. 1995, Russian government decree 772 declared a
spacecraft landing zone comprising of the area near Omsk,
Chelyabinsk, Orenburg, Samara, Tyumen, Perm, Kurgan and Sverdlov.
The Resurs-F2 launched in September 1995 used the new landing area
when it returned in late October. Movement of the landing zone
from Kazakstan as part of the continuing dispute over usage of
Russian installations in Kazakstan.
Baykonur Problems Continue
With a deadline on implementing the rent agreement for
Baykonur and Russian facilities in Kazakstan long past (Sept.
1995), by November only an agreement on ensuring security of
Baykonur and Leninsk was signed. On December 2, the town of
Leninsk was renamed Baykonur by unanimous decision of the town
assembly.
On Jan. 25, Defense Minister Pavel Grachev visited Kazakstan to
discuss the problem of Baykonur. The problem of the $115 Million
yearly rent was the main topic of negotiations. The Russians want
to have the rent discontinued as part of the $1.3 Billion debt
Russia has forgiven to Kazakstan previously for environmental
damage done around Baykonur. Lacking that, Grachev was seeking to
make the payment in military hardware and services. Many
agreements were made and 16 documents were signed after the two
days of meetings. Currently 4 of 10 launch complexes are
operational.
Baykonur launched a unique payload on Dec. 28 1995 when a
Molniya launched the Indian IRS-1C and US Skipper satellites.
Skipper was to make a complex flight to research technical aspects
of anti-missile weapons but it failed soon after launch due to a
fault in its power system.
Plesetsk Problems
In September 1995, Chernomyrdin signed an order banning power
cutoffs to military and major defense factories (previous orders
required at least 30 days of delinquent payments). Days later at
Plesetsk, troops had to be sent to patrol substations on the base
to prevent power cutoff during the launch of the last Resurs-F2 on
Sept. 26. The Resurs-F2 will be discontinued after the flight and
is planned to be replaced with the Nika built by Lavochkin, but
that program is not proceeding due to no funding.
In fact, the Plesetsk main power supply had already been cut
and the base was operating on an emergency supply line which can
only be switched off from within the base. Plesetsk including the
town of Mirnny owed the local power company 17 Billion Roubles and
the base commander had been given an ultimatum to pay in 10 days
or face cutoffs. The utility also threatened to send local militia
to guard the substations but in the end they did not challenge
Plesetsk troops and the launch was successful. Afterward the local
government settled the debt, the power utility was owed 232
Billion Roubles from the region. The troops at Plesetsk had also
gone unpaid for 2 months.
In January, officers at Plesetsk were blamed for the
misappropriation of petroleum allocated for military use. It had
been resold with the help of a local businessman. Military
prosecutors claimed up to 7 Billion roubles were lost due to their
actions.
Svobodny Cosmodrome
Svobodny Cosmodrome is nearer reality, launch of the first
satellite is planned for 1996. Yuri Koptev still considers it a
long term option and improvements at Baykonur and Plesetsk the
most important now. Plesetsk in 1995 received about 45% of its
needed funding. Meanwhile, in March, President Yeltsin signed a
document approving the creation of the new cosmodrome.
At Svobodny, the local power concern was trying to get 2.5 Billion
Roubles owed by the ICBM complex and new Cosmodrome. Power was
cutoff on Oct. 5th and 6th for many hours to the 7000 residents of
the military community and complex. In March, power was cut to
many industrial sites in eastern Siberia, their debt totalled $208
Million. Railroads for a time stopped shipments to eastern
Siberian bases due to non-payment of debts. Defense ministry
officials say that the budget for 1996 is about half of the money
needed. At the same time some workers blocked a railway in protest
of late payment of wages.
Russia is not alone in these problems, Ukrainian officials
recently cut power to 7000 factories which were delinquent in
paying electric bills. 40,000 businesses have a debt of $980
Million for power and heating. Russia was forced to disconnect
Ukraine from the joint power grid due to the losses it
experienced.
SPACE INDUSTRY
Aerospace Funding
Funding of the Russian space program for 1995 came roughly
equally from the Russian government and foreign payments for
services, mainly flights to Mir. 350 Million Roubles were earned
in 1995 for international projects and the governments funding was
deficient by 180 Million Roubles. For 1996, 28 countries have
cooperative agreements with the RSA.
A turn around in the defense industry is forecast in 1996. In
1995 the industries production in Roubles fell 22% from 1994 (and
in 1994 it was down 38% from 1993). Even with the hoped for
upturn, production in aerospace will be anemic compared with the
past with 95 transports and 180 helicopters. Only about 30
aircraft were procured for the Air Force in 1995, but export deals
worth $6.5 Billion were in the works for 1996.
An October 1995 report about the state of the defense
industry quoted Duma calculations that as much as 80% of
enterprises could be technically declared bankrupt. While that
will not happen it is being used as a political tool against the
current government because it could theoretically open the
enterprises to public sale and result in loss of government
control over the industry. The Tushino aviation plant began
scrapping the last 2 production airframes of Buran shuttles in
Oct. 1995. Production in the plant is converting to civilian
products.
Satellite Imagery Deals
In July 1995, the RSA announced a deal was made with the US
Central Trading Systems, Lambda Tech International, and Aerial
Images of America and Sovinformsputnik for the sale of Russian
meteorological satellite imagery. The joint venture will use
Resurs-T imaging satellites launched from Plesetsk to obtain
photos. The US firms already had customers waiting for the photos
in several countries, each photo was expected to cost about $1000.
In September, some previously classified satellite photos of Earth
were made available commercially by the Conversion Technology
Center jointly setup by the RSA and Ministry of Defense. Contacts
with some western nations were under development at the time of
the announcement.
Also in Dec. 1995, an agreement was signed by NPO
Mashinostroyeniya and the Malaysian firm Terra-control
Technologies for data from the yet to be launched Almaz-1B radar
imaging satellite.
International Cooperation
In November 1995, Russian and Ukraine signed an agreement for
cooperation in military and space programs covering military
processing and launch of Ukrainian spacecraft in Russia, sharing
information gained in some spaceflights, new project development,
and admissions for educational programs and symposia. By February
1996, an agreement on the specifics of space cooperation was ready
to be signed during an expected visit of Yeltsin.
Media reports in November stated that Russian Scud missile
components were seized in Jordan in route to Iraq. Both Iraq and
the Russian Foreign Ministry denied the reports which would have
been a violation of the UN sanctions on trade with Iraq imposed as
a result of the Gulf war.
China and Russia continued talks on joint defense industry
projects in Dec. 1995. The talks covered arms sales and included
talks between enterprises on joint space flights and joint use of
some satellites, probably sharing weather satellite data, etc.
In late January three Chinese visitors were deported from Ukraine
on charges of spying at the Yuzhnoye plant in Dnepropetrovsk.
Ukrainian's involved in the case were to be prosecuted. China
protested and quickly Ukranian President Leonid Kuchma dismissed
the head of the security service over the incident blaming their
misunderstanding of the situation for the unfortunate incident.
In February, negotiations were underway by Chile and Russian
officials for a second flight opportunity for the FAsat-B to
replace the FAsat which failed to separate from the Sich-1
satellite in 1995. This time the satellite will be launched from
Baykonur on a yet unnamed flight. No final agreement has been
reached but prospects are promising.
On March 1, Russia's Ministry of Atomic Energy approved a
system to monitor transportation of radioactive materials produced
by the Eleron laboratory, the SmalSat Association, Integrated
Sat/Com, Sandia National Laboratory, and the U.S. Department of
Energy. In February, the first of 57 smallsats were launched from
Plesetsk, about 400 miles North of Moscow.
Rocket Engine Agreements
The Russian Ministry of Defense in December 1995 blocked
export of NK-33 engines in a $100 Million deal finalized between
Aerojet and Samara. The Russian government approved of the deal on
October to use the engines on a new versions of the Atlas or Delta
boosters. Extensive tests in the US of two sample engines were
successful, but the Russian Defense Ministry and RSA supports the
Pratt and Whitney/Emergomash project to develop and use RD-180
engines for the project. Presumably the RD-180 would have more
potential for reuse in Russian designs than the 30 year old NK-33
which was built to power Korolev's N-1 moon rocket. Both US
firms planned to license the engine designs and setup production
in the US allowing use on future military boosters. Pratt and
Whitney is prepare to invest $150 Million to the RD-180 project.
At the same time, Chernomyrdin signed an approval of joint
research on the RD-0120 rocket which covers only computer
simulations.
Satellite Lost and Found
In December 1995 it was announced that the Express satellite,
once thought lost after launch from Japan in January 1995, was
found in Africa. Geoffrey Perry tracked down the capsule which was
based on the FOBS design in Ghana. The spacecraft had achieved a
low orbit for about 3 hours before reentering over the south
Atlantic. Locals reported a sonic boom and saw the spacecraft
descend on its parachute. Word of the arrival did not reach anyone
connected with the project until Perry found the $17 Million 770
kg. capsule.
Leadership Changes
Elections in late 1995 resulted in some changes in the
Russian government as Yeltsin opponents gained majority in the
Duma. On Dec. 28, Yeltsin gave orders that Chernomyrdin fire those
at the Finance Ministry stopping economic reform and stopping
payments due to industry. Fir instance, the Defense Ministry
received no money in December. Another change was the appointment
of a new chair of the State Committee for the Defense Industry
(Roskomoboronprom), Zinovii Pak. He supports reductions in the
size of the army and placing priorities among high technology
projects, allowing for dual use of the results and allowing
foreign cooperation and investment.
Legendary Soviet/Russian spacecraft designer Mikhail
Reshetnyov died in January 1996. He lead the team that designed
the Kosmos booster and many types of satellites and headed the NPO
Precision Mechanics in Krasnoyarsk-26 since its inception in 1959.
MILITARY SPACE
ICBM's Removed
Nuclear weapons removal from Ukraine is proceeding with all
SS-24 removed and 80 of 130 SS-19's scrapped by October 1995, the
total number of missiles left is 96. In January, destruction of
the SS-19 silos was underway and will continue through 1998, but
some political opposition had claimed local villages were
experiencing damage from the blasts, at any rate there is a
political group that doesn't want to see the silos destroyed but
instead used for tactical missiles. 300 warheads are still in
Ukraine and 1000 have already been delivered to Russia where they
are being dismantled for recovery of their nuclear material.
Kazakstan and Belarus each have 18 missiles left, all of which are
scheduled to be removed.
In late November, Yeltsin's poor health lead to western
stories about the control of strategic nuclear forces. Control is
supposed to pass to Prime Minister Chernomyrdin but not wanting to
appear to be making a grab for power so control hunted for other
qualified people. Defense Minister Grachev was out of the country
and his first deputy was incapacitated after a birthday
celebration, so it was passed to another deputy.
A former ICBM base near Novgorod has been turned into a
museum open to the public. Everything has been kept intact except
for defensive systems.
Inspecting the Troops
On October 3, Chernomyrdin inspected the Strategic Missile
Forces command headquarters to see the condition of the center and
troops. For a second year in a row, some 2000 Strategic Missile
Forces troops are harvesting potatoes near Moscow. The next day
the center began exercises to test systems readiness and
reliability, leading to live fire launches of a Topol (RS-12M)
from Plesetsk on Oct. 10. On Nov. 18 a meeting of the Military
Space Forces the results of the exercise and praised the
performance of the troops. The Strategic Rocket Forces currently
has 879 missiles and 18,000 troops.
The Military Space Forces consist of 12,000 troops, the
budget for 1995 was half of the requested amount. 25% fewer
launches were carried out in 1995, staff of orbital tracking
centers was cut by 12%. The Russian army is so low on funding that
troops in Chechnya have been forced to ware cloths donated to the
army and received only a fraction of money allocated for food.
Unexpected Arrival
A wayward science probe launched in Norway fell into the
Urals in February. Air Defense Forces detected the reentry and the
probe caused no damage. This quiet event is in contrast to last
year when a launch of a sounding rocket outside Russian borders
surprised Air Defense Forces and caused comment at the highest
levels of government.
Russian Science
Russian scientists have abandoned the Antarctic base Vostok,
established in 1957. The bases operating costs were to great and
the crew moved temporarily to the US McMurdo station. The base was
left mothballed and could be reopened in the future if funds
became available. A 3 km. deep well drilled into glacier was left
filled with a kerosene and freon mixture to enable its future use.
The rest of the facility was reinforced and sealed so it may
withstand a long period of inactivity.
Scientists held a protest in St. Petersburg and other cities
in February over the problem with non-payment of wages. Only a
third of scientists from 1992 are still employed in their field.
Sources: FBIS, Novosti Kosmonavtiki, BBC Monitoring, wire
services, Press Releases, OMRI Daily Digest, Aviation Week and
Space Technology, personal correspondance.
Cosmonautics News is reprinted here with permission from CSPACE
PRESS INC., P.O. Box 9331, Grand Rapids, Michigan, 49509-0331
cspace@delphi.com
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