Units World History (First Semester)

1-Geography
2-Prehistory
3-Egypt
4-Mesopotamia
5-Greece
6-Rome
7-Ancient & Medieval India, China, and Japan
8-The Islam
9-Middle Ages in Europe
10-Ancient America

Objectives
1-Review each of the fundamental themes of geography. (IA)

2-Describe the relationship between geography and historical events. (IA)

3-Identify the location of major geographic features and political divisions. (IA)

4-Explain the effects of geography on the settlement, migration, and growth patterns  in the development of civilizations and nation - states. (IA)

5-Explain the concept of culture and identify the components of a culture. (VA

The Five Themes

1.1-LOCATION
1.1.1-EXACT (LONGITUDE & LATITUDE)
1.1.2-RELATIVE (NEXT TO..., BESIDE...)

1.2-PLACE
1.2.1-PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS: CLIMATE, SOIL, PLANTS, ANIMALS, WATER
1.2.2-HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS: HOUSES, TRANSPORT, LANGUAGE, RELIGION
1.2.3-POLITICAL: COUNTRIES

1.3-INTERACTION (PEOPLE/ENVIRONMENT): HUNT, FARM, IRRIGATE, DRY UP, BUILD, CUT DOWN FORESTS, WIPE OUT PESTS, POLLUTE AIR & WATER

1.4-MOVEMENT: PEOPLE, GOODS, IDEAS, TECHNOLOGY

1.5-REGION: AREA WITH SIMILAR CHARACTERISTICS

2-WORLD DIVISIONS (Social, Political, or Economical Reasons)

1-West (D) / East (C)

2-North (D) / South (U)

3-First World (D) / Second World (C) / Third World (U)

4-Core (D) / Semi-Periphery (M) / Periphery (U)

5-Developed / Developing or Underdeveloped

6-Rich (D) / Poor (U)

7-Industrialized (D) / Agricultural (U)

8-Major World Regions (Common History, Religion, Culture, Economy)

8.1-Anglo America, 8.2-Latin America, 8.3-Western Europe

8.4-Eastern Europe and Former Soviet Union

8.5-North Africa and Southwest Asia, 8.6-Africa South of the Sahara

8.7-Southern Asia, 8.8-Eastern Asia, 8.9-South Pacific

9-World Religions

9.1-Christianity (Catholic, Protestant, Orthodox)

9.2-Islam, 9.3-Buddhism, 9.4-Animism, 9.5-Hinduism, 9.6-Judaism

10-World Languages

10.1-Indo-Europeans, 10.1.1-Indo-Aryan, 10.1.2-Romances, 10.1.3-Norse Germanic, 10.1.4-Slavic, 10.1.5-Iranian

10.2-Sino-Tibetan, 10.2.1-Chinese, 10.2.2-Tibeto-Burmese, 10.2.3-Thai, 10.2.4-Vietnamese

10.3-Altaic, 10.3.1-Japanese, 10.3.2-Korean, 10.3.3-Mongolic, 10.3.4-Turkic,10.3.5-Uralic

10.4-Semi-Hamitic, 10.5-Niger-Congo, 10.6-Sudanic, 10.7-Amerindian, 10.8-Malayo-Polynesian

11-World Ethnicities
11.1-Physical Appearance
11.2-Socio-Economic & Political Content

12-CONTINENTS

LARGEST COUNTRIES

WORLD POPULATION

Most Populated Cities

SOME GEOGRAPHICAL TERMS:

ARCHIPELAGO, BADLANDS, ICEBERG, DESERT, OCEAN, SWAMP, CAPE, STRAIT, PENINSULA, GULF, PLAIN, PRAIRIE, CAVE,

BAY, WATERFALL, FJORD, CHANNEL, CLIFF, DELTA, GLACIER, SEA, VALLEY, ISLAND, DUNE, ISTHMUS, BEACH,

JUNGLE, HILL, LAGOON, MARSH, ATOLL, MOUNTAIN, CANYON, LAKE, RIVER, TUNDRA, FOREST, BUTTE, VOLCANO, PLATEAU,

GEYSER.
 

SOME TOOLS OF GEOGRAPHY

1-GLOBES

2-TYPES OF MAPS

2.1-INTERRUPTED PROJECTION: CORRECT SIZES & SHAPES; NOT MEASURE DISTANCES ACROSS THE OCEANS.

2.2-MERCATOR PROJECTION: TRUE SHAPES, DISTORTED SIZES.

2.3-ROBINSON PROJECTION: CORRECT SIZES & SHAPES

3-CONTENT OF MAPS: POLITICAL, PHYSICAL, ROADS, WEATHER, ECONOMY, POPULATION, NATURAL RESOURCES.

INTERNET

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

North America

2-PREHISTORY

Objectives

1-Describe and give examples of social, political, and economic development from the Paleolithic Age through the Bronze Age (II B).

2-Distinguish between prehistory and recorded history, and state approximate dates of ancient, medieval, and modern periods (II B).

GEOLOGIC ERAS

1-ARCHEOZOIC

2-PROTEROZOIC

3-PALEOZOIC (Primary): SILURIAN (430 mill.): Bacterium, Micro Organisms, DEVONIAN (395mill.): Corals, Sponges, Plants (Ferns), CARBONIFEROUS (345-225 mill.): Snails, Insects, Forests.

4-MESOZOIC (Secondary): JURASSIC (190-135 mill.): Reptiles, Big Fishes (Sharks), CRETACEOUS (135-65 mill.): Dinosaurs, First Mammals.

5-CENOZOIC:

5.1--Terciary: 5.1.1-PALEOGENE (65-25mill.) : EOCENE: Lizards, Snakes & OLIGOCENE: Marsupials, Wales, Birds 5.1.2-NEOGENE: MIOCENE (7 mill.): Monkeys, Horses & PLIOCENE (2-1 mill.): Frogs, Bats, Apes

5.2-Quaternary: 5.2.1- PLEISTOCENE (1 mill.-10 thousands): PALEOLITHIC: Glaciers, First Man (Caves, Fire, Nomadic, Language, Tools, Furs, Natural Harvesting) & MESOLITHIC: Sedentary, Hunting, and Fishing. 5.2.2-HOLOCENE (9-5 thousands): NEOLITHIC (Agriculture, Domestic Animals, Cattle, Villages, Plow, Wheel, Social Classes)

PREHISTORY:

 PALEOLITHIC (2.5 Million years ago to 10,000 BC)

NEOLITHIC (9,000 -3,500 BC)

BRONZE AGE (3,500 - 1,200 BC)

IRON AGE (1,200 BC - 100 AD)

Some Key Historical Issues

1-Man vs. Animals: Use of fire, creation and use of tools.

2-Prehistory vs. History: Written records.

3-History: Culture & Power.

4-Ethnicity: Sense of belonging to the group. We and the others. Personal identity.

The family (horde, clan, tribe), the city, the state, the nation.

Conforming vs. Deviating. Loyalty. Friends vs. Foes.

We are the best !!!! We are the most powerful !!! We should rule !!!

5-Sex: Male & Female (Natural categories)

5.1-Sexuality: What is sexual? Being naked, to watch, to touch, to kiss, to hug.

Promiscuity, Incest, Group marriage, Polyandry, Monogamy,

Polygamy. Heterosexual, Homosexual, Bisexual. (Social)

5.2-Gender: Manhood & Womanhood. The Matriarchal & Patriarchal Societies.

Specialization of Labor. Social Roles. (Social)

What sex should lead the family and the society? The weak sex?

6-Religion: Look for answers: Life and Death, Mother Nature, The Universe, etc.

....Hunger and Disease.

....Thinking vs. The Soul / The Spirit

....Specialization: Wizards, Oracles, Priests.

....Creation vs. Evolution.

....Whose God is the True God, the Best God?

.....Religious Intolerance and Religious Wars. Religion & Power.

7-Class: Economic Surplus. Common Property vs. Private Property.

.........Specialization: Leaders, Warriors, Workers, Slaves.

.........Rich and Poor. Economic Status.

..........Privilege & Power. Politics. Who rules?

..........Relationship with regard to the Means of Production. (Social)

8-Race: Defining “biological” or “natural” differences.

Darwinism, Evolution, and Society.

Which race is the best? Inferior races? Racism.

Exploration and Colonization of Africa, America, and Asia.

Colonialism, Imperialism, Eugenics and Nazism. (Social)

9-The White Male Supremacy. The White Man’s Burden.

10-The Systems of Domination & Oppression.
 
 

EVOLUTION OF SEXUAL PRACTICES, THE FAMILY, AND WOMEN’S ROLE

According to:

Bachofen, Johann Jakob (1861). Mother’s Right.

Tylor, Edward Burnett (1865). Researches in the Early History of Mankind.

Giraud-Teulon, Alexis (1874). Origin of the Family.

McLennan, John Ferguson (1876). Studies in Ancient History

Morgan, Lewis H. (1877). Ancient Society.

Lubbock, John (1882). The Origin of Civilization.

Engels, Frederick (1884). The Origin of the Family, Private Property, and the State.
 
 

Paleolithic / Savagery (2.5-2.6 million years ago to 10,000 BC)

Gathering and hunting. Caves. Nomadic.

Collective ownership, cooperative social relations, equality.

Primitive division of labor between sexes.

Primal or maternal horde. Consanguine family. Incest. Promiscuous sexual relations. Endogamy. Female lineage. Women were the only ascertainable parents, the center and most respected members of the group. Mother’s right.

Maternal clan. Punaluan (partner) family. Exogamy. Two clans meet for mating. It didn’t involve change of residence or cohabitation. Everything else remained the same.

Group marriage. Every woman belonged equally to every man and, similarly, every man to every woman. Promiscuous relations within the group, but not incest. Clans merged to form a tribe.

Polyandry was also practiced when women were scarce.

Pairing family. Cohabitation of the couple. The community still under cooperative social relations. This form coexisted for a while with the maternal clan and / or group marriages. Marriage could be easily dissolved by either side. Women were still very important and respected.
 

Notice that the first men appeared in Africa

Notice that the northern hemisphere was covered by ice.

                                 Stonehenge

Click to See PowerPoints on Prehistoric Art: http://iris.nyit.edu/arthistory/

Neolithic / Barbarism / Archaic States (10, 000 BC - 3, 500 BC)

Agriculture, domestication of animals / stock-raising, houses, sedentary, metallurgy, and trade.

Economic surplus. Social division of labor (Specialization). Private property, social classes, the state. First urban populations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, India, and China. Large-scale projects (irrigation, construction). Slavery.

Patriarchal family. Father’s right; monogamy (only for women), male lineage. Sexual and social oppression of women.

Polygamous family in which wealthy men had several wives, concubines, and slaves.

Civilization:

1-Cities as administrative centers
2-Political system based on territory
3-Domestication of plants and animals. Settled agricultural life.
4-Division of labor or Specialization (leaders, warriors, priests, farmers, hunters, artisans, merchants)
5-Socio-economic status / classes based on existence of a surplus (wealthy, middle class, poor)
6-Monumental buildings
7-System of writing / keeping records
8-Long-distance trade
9-Art & Science
 
HISTORY

ANCIENT (3 500 BC-476 AD)

MIDDLE AGE (476 AD-1492)

MODERN (1492-1914)

CONTEMPORARY (1914-TODAY)

HUMANITIES

LITERATURE, ARTS, ETHICS, PHILOSOPHY, RELIGION, LAW, ORATORY.

TYPES OF HISTORY

WORLD HISTORY, REGIONAL HISTORY, NATIONAL HISTORY, LOCAL HISTORY

HISTORY'S AUXILIARY SCIENCES

ARCHEOLOGY, DEMOGRAPHY, STATISTICS, PHILATELY , HERALDIC, NUMISMATIC, PALEOGRAPHY (ANCIENT MANUSCRIPTS), PALEONTOLOGY (FOSSILS), HISTORIOGRAPHY.

SOCIAL SCIENCES

HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY, ECONOMY, PSYCHOLOGY, SOCIOLOGY, POLITICAL SCIENCE, ANTHROPOLOGY (ETHNOLOGY & LINGUISTICS).
 
 

AFRICAN PEOPLES (MORE THAN 800 LANGUAGES AND DIALECTS)

1-BANTU (CENTER / SOUTH)

2-BUSHMEN/BOSQUIMANOS (SOUTHWEST)

3-HOTTENTOT/HOTENTOTES (SOUTHEAST)

4-PYGMY/PIGMEOS (WESTERN COAST)

5-BERBER/BEREBERE (NORTHERN AFRICA)

6-CUSH-SEMITIC/CUSITAS-SEMITAS (AFRICAN HORN)

7-SUDANESE/SUDANES (SUDAN)

8-NILOTHIC/EGYPTIAN (ALONG THE NILE)

9-CONGOLESE/CONGOLES (CONGO)

ANCIENT AFRICAN EMPIRES

1-EGYPTIAN EMPIRE

2-KINDOM OF CUSH

3-KINGDOM OF AKSUM

4-KINGDOM OF THE BANTU
 
 

3-EGYPT

Objectives
1-Give examples of types of governments, societies, economies, and religions that developed among the river valley civilizations (I B).

2-Examine the role of geography in the development of African civilizations. (I B)

3-List the major cultural achievements of early civilizations (V B).
 

VOCABULARY

1-DELTA:

2-PHARAOH:

3-CARAVAN:

4-GRANARY:

5-PYRAMID:

6-SPHINX:

7-SCRIBES:

8-BASIN:

9- MUMMY:

10-HIERATIC:

11-EMBALM:

12-PAPYRUS:

13-HIEROGLYPHICS:

14-BOOK OF THE DEAD:

15-OBELISK:

16-HYKSOS:
 

CURIOSITIES OF ANCIENT EGYPT

1-THE EGYPTIAN EMBALMER’S ART ACCORDING TO HERODOTUS:

DRAW OUT PART OF THE BRAINS THROUGH THE NOSTRILS WITH AN IRON HOOK AND THE OTHER PART BY THE INFUSION OF DRUGS.

MAKE AN INCISION IN THE SIDE TO TAKE OUT ALL THE BOWELS.

CLEANSE AND RINSE IT WITH PALM WINE.

SPRINKLE THE BODY WITH POUNDED PERFUME.

FILL THE BELLY WITH PURE MYRRH, CASSIA, AND OTHER PERFUMES AND SEW IT UP.

STEEP THE CORPSE IN NATRON (SILICATE OF SODIUM AND ALUMINUM) LEAVING IT UNDER FOR SEVENTY DAYS.

WASH THE BODY AND WRAP IT IN BANDAGES OF WAXEN CLOTH, SMEARING IT WITH GUM (AS GLUE).
 
2-HIGH CLASS EGYPTIAN PRACTICED INCEST TO PRESERVE THE PURITY OF THE BLOOD. RICH MEN -INCLUDING THE PHARAOH- MARRIED THEIR SISTERS AND SOMETIMES THEIR DAUGHTERS. HOWEVER, THEY ALL HAD HAREMS, SOME OF THEM FORMED FOR HUNDRED OF YOUNG WOMEN.

3-RAMSES II HAD 150 CHILDREN. HE LIVED 99 YEARS.
 
4-BUILDING A PYRAMID TOOK 20-30 YEARS AND NEEDED THE WORK OF MORE THAN 100, 000 SLAVES. IN KHUFUS’S PYRAMID THERE ARE 21/2 MILLION STONE BLOCKS. SOME BLOCKS WEIGH 150 TONS, ALTHOUGH THE AVERAGE WEIGH IS 2 TONS. IT IS 481 FEET TALL (160 METERS = LIKE A 80 STORY BUILDING). EVERY PYRAMID HAD A SECRET PASSAGE WAY FOR THE CARCASS OF THE KING.
 
5-“ALL THE WORLD FEARS TIME, BUT TIME FEARS PYRAMIDS”.
 
6-SOMETIMES WOMEN WERE OFFERED TO “SACRED” ANIMALS (GODS) AS SEXUAL MATES. THE BULL AND THE GOAT -OSIRIS- RECEIVED THIS HONOR. THEY REPRESENTED THE SEXUAL CREATIVE POWER. YOUNG AND BEAUTIFUL WOMEN WERE FORCED TO HAVE COITUS WITH THOSE ANIMALS.

7-CHAMPOLLION, ONE OF THE NAPOLEONS’ SERVANTS, USING THE “ROSETTA STONE” AND AN INSCRIPTION ABOUT PTOLEMY & CLEOPATRA (GREEK & HIEROGLYPHICS), SPENT 20 YEARS (1798-1818) TO DECIPHER THE EGYPTIAN ALPHABET (MEANING OF THE HIEROGLYPHICS).
 

Egyptian Historical Periods / Dynasties

Pre-dynastic Period (Prior to 3100 BC)

Archaic Period (1st - 2nd Dynasty)

Old Kingdom (3rd - 6th Dynasty)

First Intermediate Period (7th - 11th Dynasty)

Middle Kingdom (12th - 13th Dynasty)

Second Intermediate Period (14th - 17th Dynasty)

New Kingdom (18th - 21st Dynasty)

Third Intermediate Period (22nd - 25th Dynasty)

Late Period (26th - 30th Dynasty)

            Major Egyptian Pharaohs

• Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt in 3100 BC
• At around 2575 BC (Old Kingdom), Pharaoh Khufu (aka. Cheops) makes his mark on the landscape: the Great Pyramid of Giza.
• Hatshepsut, queen of ancient Egypt of the XVIII dynasty; daughter of Thutmose I. She managed to rule Egypt by relegating her husband, Thutmose II, to the background. After his death, she continued in power as regent to his son, Thutmose III. Her reign lasted from 1486 to 1468 BC
• Amenophis IV or Akhenaten reigned from 1367 BC to 1350 BC during the XVIII Dynasty. His famous wife was Nefertiti. He concentrated on building a new monotheistic religion around Aten.  Worship of all other gods was banned, and this caused the majority of the internal unrest.
• Tutankhamun was Pharaoh of the XVIII dynasty too (1334-1323 BC). "King Tut" is perhaps best known to modern westerners as the only pharaoh to have his nearly intact tomb (KV62) discovered.
• Ramses II (also known as Ramses the Great), reigned from 1290 to 1224 BC (66 years). He became Pharaoh at the age of 24, and died in this 90th year. He was known to the Ancient Greeks as Sesostris. He was the third king of the XIX dynasty, and the son of Seti I and his Queen Tuya. The most memorable of Ramses' wives was Nefertari. Battle of Kadesh against the Hittites. Temple of  Abu Simbel. The Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt.
• Cleopatra (70-30 BC). She was the last member of the Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty to rule Egypt. Caesar ana Mark Anthony. Battle of Actium.

-CIVILIZATION THAT LASTED MORE THAN 3000 YEARS: 30 SEPARATED DYNASTIES.
 
-DIFFERENT CAPITALS: MEMPHIS, THEBES, AND AKHENATON.
 

-NILE VALLEY, A NARROW PASSAGE THROUGH THE DESERT (UPPER AND LOWER EGYPT). THE NILE FLOWS FROM SOUTH (UPPER) TO NORTH (LOWER); IT IS THE LONGEST RIVER IN THE WORLD. THE DELTA REGION WAS SWAMPY (CROCODILES AND HIPPOPOTAMUSES).
 

Major Events

1-Pre-dynastic Period (Prior to 3200 BC):
Period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy with King Narmer / Menes. Unification of Lower and Upper Egypt in 3150 BCE. Capital city was located at Abydos.

2-Old Kingdom (2575-2134 BCE):
The royal capital moved to Memphis. This period is frequently referred to as the Age of the Pyramids.

3-Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BCE):
The capital city was located at Thebes.  Senusret II (1897-1878 BCE) improved trade with Nubia, Palestine and the Levant. His successor, Senusret III (1878-1839 BCE), was a warrior-king. He led his troops deep into Nubia, and built a series of massive forts throughout the country to establish Egypt's formal boundary with the unconquered areas of the territory. At the end of this period, the Hyksos made their appearance and ruled Lower and Middle Egypt for 108 years (1648–1540 BCE).

4-Kush (Nubia ) conquered southern Egypt: 1550-1532 (Allied with the Hyksos)

5-New Kingdom (1532-1070 BCE):
It was Egypt’s most prosperous time and marked the zenith of its power. Destruction of the kingdom of Kush and its capital Kerma. Egypt expanded far south into Nubia and held wide territories in the Near East. Egyptian armies fought against the Hittites for control of modern-day Syria. This period included some of Egypt's most famous Pharaohs (Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ramses II, the Great). Queen Hatshepsut concentrated on expanding Egypt's external trade, sending a commercial expedition to the land of Punt (northern Ethiopia). Thutmose III ("the Napoleon of Egypt") expanded Egypt's army, creating the largest empire Egypt had ever seen. Amenhotep IV, who changed his name to Akhenaten in honor of the Aten and whose exclusive worship of the Aten is often interpreted as history's first instance of monotheism. Ramses II (regarded as Egypt's greatest and most powerful pharaoh) won the Battle of Kadesh, defeating the Hittites, had many wives and concubines (the most famous being Nefertari), sired many children, built extensively throughout Egypt and Nubia (including the Temple of Abu-Simbel), and lived a very long life. The Valley of the Kings (west bank of the Nile, across from Thebes / Luxor) replaced the Pyramids.

6-Decline of Egyptian control in Nubia: 1000 BCE
7-Kush (Nubia) controled Egypt: 712-660 BCE (Napata)
8-Assyrian conquest of Egypt: 671-610 BCE. Saite Kings: 610-526 BCE
9-Achaemenid / Persian Egypt: 525-332 BCE
10-Kingdom of Meroe (Nubia): 300 BCE – 350 CE. Candace (Several Queens).
11-Ptolomaic Egypt (Cleopatra): 305-30 BCE
12-Roman Egypt: 30 BCE-324 CE
13-Byzantine Egypt: 324 (Constantine I) - 639 (Arabian invasion)

EGYPTIAN GODS / MYTHOLOGY:

.OSIRIS (GOD OF THE AFTERLIFE)

.ISIS (OSIRIS WIFE, GODDESS OF MATERNITY) (SNAKE HEAD)

.HORUS (SON OF OSIRIS/ISIS, LIVING GOD=PHARAOH) (FALCON HEAD)

.ANUBIS (SON OF OSIRIS / ISIS, GOD OF FUNERALS / EMBALMMENT; WOLF HEAD)

.HAPI (GOD OF NILE)

.AMON-RA (GOD OF SUN)

SET (DESERT, CHAOS)

HATHOR (MILK)

SOBEK (CROCODILE)

PTAH (CRAFTMEN, PYRAMID BUILDERS)

THOTH (WRITING, WISDOM)

MA'AT (TRUTH & JUSTICE)

Osiris	Isis	Set	Anubis	Horus	Hapi
Ptah	Hathor	Ra	Sobek	Thoth	Ma'at

 
-HUGE TEMPLES WERE BUILT DURING THE MIDDLE AND NEW KINGDOMS (LUXOR, KARNAK, AMON, AND ABU-SIMBEL)

   
                      Abu-Simbel                                                                                                               Luxor

-PYRAMIDS WERE PHARAOHS' TOMBS, THEIR HOMES FOR ETERNITY (THEY MUST LAST FOREVER). 100,000 SLAVES WORKED FOR 20-30 YEARS TO BUILD SOME OF THEM. LATER, THE VALLEY OF KINGS REPLACED THE PYRAMIDS.

THE VALLEY OF THE KINGS

-THE BOOK OF THE DEAD AND THE PROCESS OF MUMMIFICATION WERE VERY IMPORTANT TO PASS THE JUDGMENT OF OSIRIS.

-THE NILE FLOODED EVERY YEAR. IT WAS THE CENTER OF EGYPTIAN ECONOMY AND DAILY LIFE.. THEY USED THE WATER TO IRRIGATE THE FIELDS.

-COMMON EGYPTIANS LIVED IN MUD-BRICK HOUSES IN SMALL VILLAGES. TRADERS TRAVELED ALONG THE RIVER OR CROSSED THE DESERT IN CAMELS' CARAVANS.

-THE EGYPTIANS WERE GOOD MATHEMATICIANS, RESEARCHED THE ANATOMY OF THE HUMAN BODY, WERE GOOD PHYSICIANS, CREATED MANY DRUGS AND MEDICINES, AND MASTERED THE EMBALMING TECHNIQUES. THE HIEROGLYPHICS WERE THEIR WRITING SYSTEM; THEY USED PAPYRUS MADE OF REED TO WRITE.

EGYPTIAN ART Click to See  PowerPoints on Egyptian Art: http://iris.nyit.edu/arthistory/

-THE EGYPTIANS WERE ALSO WARRIORS & CONQUERORS.

Battle of Kadesh (1274 BC)
  The Chariot

-IN 1750 B.C., THE HYKSOS ATTACKED, OCCUPIED, AND RULED EGYPT FOR 150 YEARS. AFTER THE HYKSOS WERE EXPELLED IN 1570 BC, PHARAOHS WERE STRONG AGAIN AND THEIR ARMIES CONQUERED MANY TERRITORIES.

EGYPTIAN COSTUMES

4-MESOPOTAMIA

Objectives

1-Give examples of the types of governments, societies, economies, and religions that developed among the river valley civilizations (I B).

2-List the cultural achievements of early civilizations (V C).

3-Discuss the basic tenets of Judaism (VI B).

VOCABULARY

1-MESOPOTAMIA:

2-FERTILE CRESCENT:

4-SUMERIANS, AKKADIANS, ISRAELITES, PHOENICIANS, BABYLONIANS, HITTITES, ASSYRIANS, CHALDEANS, AND PERSIANS.

5-IRRIGATION:

6-CITY-STATES:

7-CODE OF LAWS:

8-EMPIRE:

9-CLAY TABLETS / TABLET HOUSE:

10-CUNEIFORM:

11-STYLUS: POINTED TOOL TO WRITE

12-ZIGGURAT:

13-CHARIOT:

14-SATRAP: DISTRICT GOVERNOR UNDER CYRUS.

15-ZOROASTRIANISM:

16-LITTER: BED-VEHICLE

17-ZODIAC: 12 CONSTELLATIONS

18-STEPPE: GRASS PLAINS

19-BARTER SYSTEM: TRADE WITHOUT MONEY. INTERCHANGE.

20-HITTITES: PEOPLE FROM THE NEAR EAST (2000-1200 BC). IRON WEAPONS & CHARIOTS.

21-MONOTHEIST / POLYTHEIST:

22-PALESTINE / JUDAH / ISRAEL

23-PROPHET:

24-COVENANT: AGREEMENT (GOD)

25-ALPHABET:

26-PATRIARCH:

27-MARDUK: BABYLONIAN CHIEF GOD (MONSTER WHO SHOULD PROTECT THE CITY: VIPER HEAD, DRAGON BODY, LION/EAGLE LEGS, SCORPION TAIL)
 
 

PEOPLE / LEADERS

1-SARGON I : KING OF AKKAD

2-HAMMURABI : KING OF BABYLONIA

3-ASSURBANIPAL : KING OF ASSYRIA

4-NEBUCHADREZZAR II : KING OF CHALDEA / BABYLON II

5-CYRUS II, THE GREAT: KING OF PERSIA

6-DARIUS I: KING OF PERSIA

7-ABRAHAM: PATRIARCH, PROPHET, AND FOUNDER OF THE FIRST ONE-GOD RELIGION. FATHER (W/SLAVE) OF ISHMAEL (FIRST MUSLIM) AND (W/SARA) ISAAC (FIRST JEW). ORIGIN OF 3 MAJOR “MODERN” RELIGIONS. HE LIVED 175 YEARS (GENESIS).

8-MOSES: PRINCE OF EGYPT, SHEPHERD, PROPHET, LEADER OF THE HEBREW PEOPLE. THE TEN COMMANDMENTS. HE LIVED 120 YEARS (OLD TESTAMENT).

9-SAUL: FIRST KING OF ISRAEL.

10-DAVID: KING OF ISRAEL.

11-SOLOMON: KING OF ISRAEL.

ACHIEVEMENTS OF MESOPOTAMIA
 

ART OF MESOPOTAMIA       Click to See PowerPoints on Near East Art: http://iris.nyit.edu/arthistory/

MAJOR EVENTS

-MESOPOTAMIA MEANS "BETWEEN RIVERS" : TIGRIS AND EUPHRATES. THIS REGION (FERTILE CRESCENT) WAS THE CRADLE OF DIFFERENT CIVILIZATIONS

SUMER . . (3000 BC.)

-CITY - STATES: KISH, URUK, UR, LAGASH.

EACH CITY HAD ITS OWN GOVERNMENT. THERE WERE FREQUENT WARS BETWEEN THEM.

-DIFFERENT GODS WITH HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS.

-STRONG WALLS AROUND THE CITIES FOR PROTECTION; DYKES AND CANALS TO DRAIN SWAMPS AND BRING WATER TO FARMLANDS; THEY HAD LITTLE WOOD OR STONE, THEN THEY USED CLAY BRICKS; THE MAIN BUILDING IN EACH CITY WAS "THE ZIGGURAT" (TEMPLE).

-FIRST, CITIZENS CHOSE GOVERNORS; LATER, MILITARY LEADERS BECAME RULERS; POOR PEOPLE OWN THEIR HOMES AND/OR FARMS; SLAVES CAN BORROW MONEY, SET UP BUSINESSES, AND BUY THEIR FREEDOM.

-CUNEIFORM SYSTEM (550 CHARACTERS) OF WRITING. THEY DIDN’T USE PAPER BUT CLAY TABLETS; FIRST PEOPLE WRITING HISTORY; ARITHMETIC BASED ON NUMBER 60 (STILL USED TODAY IN TIME); INVENTED POTTER’S WHEEL (MANY FORMS); FIRST TO USE ARCHES AND RAMPS IN BUILDINGS; FIRST TO USE A PLOW AND SAILBOAT; FIRST TO PUT WHEELS TO A VEHICLE.

AKKAD . .(2200 BC)

-CAPITAL CITY: AKKAD.

-SARGON I UNITED THE STATE-CITIES, CREATED THE AKKADIAN KINGDOM, AND BEGAN A DYNASTY.

-THEY USED BRONZE WEAPONS.

-WRITING, RELIGION, AND WAY OF LIFE STAYED THE SAME.

BABYLONIAN EMPIRE (1800 BC.)

-CAPITAL CITY: BABYLON.

-AFTER SARGON’S DEATH A NEW CITY AROSE: BABYLON AND A NEW KING: HAMMURABI CONQUERED THE TERRITORIES OF AKKAD AND SUMER AS WELL AS NEW CITIES; HIS REIGN IS KNOWN AS "THE GOLDEN AGE OF BABYLON".

-WRITING AND RELIGION STAYED THE SAME.

-A HUGE ZIGGURAT WAS BUILT.  MARDUK. HAMMURABI ORDERED THE CONSTRUCTION OF A WALL AROUND THE CITY, WHICH WAS 11 MILES LONG AND 80 FEET TALL; HE IMPROVED THE ROADS AND THE IRRIGATION CANALS.

-HAMMURABI CREATED THE FIRST SYSTEM OF LAWS: "HAMMURABI’S CODE".
 

1-Amorites: 1900s – 1600s BCE (Hammurabi:1792 - 1750).
2-Kassites: 1595 – 1185 BCE
3-Hittites: 1531 BCE
4-Assyrians: 1224 - 1217 BCE

Marduk

The Winged Bull of Babylon

PHOENICIANS  (1100 BC.)

-THIS PEOPLE WAS SETTLED AT THE EASTERN COAST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN; CITIES - STATES IN A SMALL WOODED AREA.

-CITIES: TYRE AND SIDON.

-MANY GODS.

-THEY USED WOOD TO BUILD THEIR HOUSES AND SHIPS AND BECAME TRADERS AND SAILORS.

-THEY MAPPED SEA ROUTES; THEY WERE THE FIRST TO USE THE NORTH STAR AS A GUIDE IN SAILING; THEY TRAVELED TO PLACES WHERE NO ONE ELSE DARED TO GO (AROUND AFRICA); THEY SETTLED CARTHAGE IN NORTH AFRICA (814 BC); THEY DEVELOPED AN ALPHABET OF 22 LETTERS TO REPLACE THE CUNEIFORM SYSTEM; THEY SPREAD THE CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE EAST AROUND THE WORLD.

                         THE PHOENICIANS CREATED THE FIRST ALPHABET

HEBREWS (1200 BC.)

1-Saul (1020 BCE)

2-David (1000 – 960 BCE)

3-Solomon (960 – 920 BCE)

4-Split: Israel (North) & Judah (South)

5-Assyrians destroyed Israel: 721. Judah survived a little bit longer.

6-Nebuchadnezzar (New Babylonian Empire / Chaldeans) captured Jerusalem: 587 BCE (Diaspora started)

-SOUTHEASTERN COAST OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. ABRAHAM & MOSES. THE PROMISED LAND: CANAAN (PALESTINE).

-CITY: JERUSALEM.

-JUDAISM (First Monotheist Religion). THE OLD TESTAMENT (THE BIBLE).  IT WAS THE SOURCE AND BASIS OF CHRISTIANITY THAT WOULD COME UP CENTURIES LATER; IT SET HIGH STANDARDS (BEHAVIOR AND MORAL VALUES). THE PROPHETS WERE MEN WHO TOLD HEBREWS WHAT TO DO TO PLEASE GOD.

-MOST HEBREWS/JEWS/ISRAELITES WERE SHEPHERDS AND NOMADS; HOWEVER, SOME BECAME FARMERS.

              JERUSALEM & THE FIRST TEMPLE

                                 David vs. Goliath

ASSYRIAN EMPIRE . . (665 BC.)

-CAPITAL CITY: NINEVEH.

-ASSURBANIPAL, KING OF THE ASSYRIANS, CONQUERED THE CITIES-STATES, CREATED AN EMPIRE AND DIVIDED IT IN PROVINCES THAT HAD TO PAY TAXES.

-SAME RELIGION AS OTHER MESOPOTAMIAN PEOPLES: MANY GODS.

-THE ASSYRIANS WERE A TRIBE OF WARRIORS WHO LEARNED FROM THE HITTITES HOW TO MELT AND MAKE WEAPONS AND TOOLS OF IRON; THEY CREATED A WELL ORGANIZED ARMY (DIVIDED IN SMALL UNITS) AND THEY WERE THE FIRST USING CAVALRY AND ARCHERS; SOLDIERS WORE IRON HELMETS AND BREAST PLATES. ASSYRIANS WERE CRUEL: THEY DESTROYED AND LOOT CITIES, KILL PRISONERS, RAPE WOMEN, AND SO ON. THEY HAD A NETWORK OF SPIES.

-CUNEIFORM SYSTEM OF WRITING.

-THEY BUILT A ROAD SYSTEM TO LINK THE CAPITAL AND PROVINCES; THIS HELPED TRADE AND ARMY MOVEMENTS.

-AFTER ASSURBANIPAL DEATH CHALDEANS AND MEDES ALLIED AGAINST ASSYRIANS AND DEFEATED THEM.

 CHALDEAN EMPIRE (Also around BABYLON) (570 BC.)

-CAPITAL CITY: BABYLON

-NEBUCHADNEZZAR WAS THE KING OF THE CHALDEANS.

-THEY WERE CALLED THE NEW BABYLONIANS, DEFEATED EGYPTIANS WHEN THEY TRIED TO TAKE OVER SYRIA AND PHOENICIA, AND DESTROYED JERUSALEM AND CAPTURED 15,000 JEWS WHO BECAME SLAVES.

-SAME RELIGION AND WRITING SYSTEM THAN OTHER MESOPOTAMIA PEOPLES.

-BABYLON WAS ENLARGED AND FORTIFIED; THE "HANGING GARDENS" WERE BUILT; THE KING BUILT A HUGE ZIGGURAT

THAT SOME HISTORIANS BELIEVE WAS THE CALLED "TOWER OF BABEL" MENTIONED IN THE BIBLE.

-THEY WERE THE FIRST ASTRONOMERS: MADE MAPS OF STARS AND NAMED THE 12 CONSTELLATIONS OF THE ZODIAC; THEY ESTABLISHED THE WEEK OF SEVEN DAYS.

-WHEN THE KING DIED, THERE WAS A CIVIL WAR.

                                                                                                         Ishtar Gate

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

Babel Tower

The Median Empire (728-550 BCE)

Iran: Land of the Aryans. Limited info from within, but from the Greeks. Mostly mountains and deserts. Never had a dense population. Iranian people: Medes & the Parsa (Persians). Medes / Kurds. Together with the Chaldeans defeated the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of the first Iranian empire, the largest of its day until Cyrus the Great established a unified the Medes and Persians, often referred to as the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

Achaemenid / Persian Empire (550–330 BCE)

Persian ruler (Achaemenid) Cyrus (590-530 BCE) married a Median princess. He shared key gov. positions among both groups. Patriarchal family. Classes: warriors, priests (Magi), and peasants. Expanded the empire greatly: Anatolia, Mesopotamia, western coast of Greece. Babylon surrendered without a fight. Cambyses (???-522 BCE), Cyrus’ son, added Egypt to the empire. Darius I (522-486 BCE), seized the throne when Cambyses died. He had skills, energy and ruthlessness. Medes played a lesser role. Expanded the empire from India to Europe, the largest in the world at that time. Great ethnic diversity. Divided the empire into twenty (20) provinces, each under a satrap (governor), related to the royal family by marriage. They had to collect taxes and send them to the emperor. Decentralized government. Well-maintained and patrolled system of roads. Garrisons at key points. Susa was the administrative capital city. Royal inspectors traveled throughout the empire to inform the king. Metal coins to facilitate trade. Elite women were politically influential, had substantial property, and traveled a lot. The king and the court became a center of luxury and power. Darius referred to everyone as “my slaves” and called himself the “King of Kings”. Prisoners of war had to work in construction projects. He began the construction of Persepolis, which was finished by his son Xerses. A new religion was initiated by Zoroaster (????) with his Gathas: Zoroastrianism (one supreme deity): The world was created by Ahuramazda, the wise lord, and was threatened by Angra Mainyu, the hostile spirit. The struggle between good and evil. Humanity is a participant in that cosmic struggle. Mithra, one of the old deities from Persian polytheist past. Struggle between Persia and Greece: 546-323.

                              Zoroastrianism

Persia After Alexander

The Seleucid Empire (312-60 BCE)

Seleucus (one of Alexander generals) established himself in Babylon in 312 initiating the Seleucid Empire It included central Anatolia, the Levant, Mesopotamia, Persia, Turkmenistan and Pamir. Seleucus invaded India (modern Punjab Pakistan) in 305 BC, confronting Chandragupta Maurya. At the end they signed a treaty. The peace was complemented by a "marriage alliance". Towards the end of Antiochus II's reign (261-246), various provinces simultaneously asserted their independence, such as Bactria under Diodotus, Parthia under Arsaces, and Cappadocia under Ariarathes III. Greco-Bactrian kingdom (245-125).

Iranian kingdom, Parthia was located south-east of the Caspian Sea. The Parthians were consummate horsemen, known for a military tactic called the Parthian shot. They ended the Hellenization of Iran. The Empire also became a rival state of the powerful Roman Empire. In 139 BC, the Parthian king Mithridates I captured the Seleucid monarch Demetrius II Nicator, holding him captive for ten years while Parthian troops overwhelmed Mesopotamia and Media. The empire was not very centralized. There were several languages, many people, and a number of different economic systems. This was a key to its survival. In the 2nd century CE, the most important capital, Ctesiphon, was captured no less than three times by the Romans (in 116, 165 and 198), but the empire survived because there were other centers of power.

The Sassanid Empire (226-651 BCE)

The Sassanid dynasty was founded by Ardashir I after defeating the last Parthian king and ended when the Islamic conquerors entered its territory (Caliphates). The Sassanid Empire's traditional territory encompassed all of today's Iran, Iraq, Armenia, Afghanistan, eastern parts of Turkey, and parts of Syria, Pakistan, Caucasia, Central Asia and Arabia. The Sassanids called their empire Eranshahr "Empire of the Aryans (Persians)"

COSTUMES OF MESOPOTAMIA & PERSIA

5-GREECE

Objectives

1-Trace the origin and development of the classical Greek civilization, placing emphasis on the role of geography in its development. (I A)

2-Discuss and analyze factors which discouraged unification among the Greek city-states (II B).

3-Give examples of cultural diffusion throughout history (V A).

4-List major cultural achievements of early civilizations (V B)

5-Identify the major contributions of classical Greece and their effects on the development of Western civilization (V B).
 

VOCABULARY

1-CLASSICAL: PERFECT MODEL.

2-LEGEND: ANCIENT STORY WHERE FANTASY & REALITY BLEND.

3-PHILOSOPHER: THINKER.

4-ACHEANS: FIRST GREEKS.

5-ACROPOLIS: HILL WHERE GREEK BUILT THEIR CITIES.

6-DEMOCRACY: RULE BY THE PEOPLE.

7-DIRECT DEMOCRACY: PEOPLE VOTE DIRECTLY EACH LAW.

8-REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY: SENATORS & REPRESENTATIVES.

9-POLIS: CITY - STATE.

10-BALLOT: VOTING PROCESS (SECRET/ WHITE & BLACK STONES).

11-OSTRACISM:

12-HELOTS:

13-SHIELD: SPARTAN SLOGAN ( WITH THE SHIELD: VICTORY OR ON THE SHIELD: DEAD ).

14-HELLENISTIC:

15-BARD: AEDA / MINSTREL: JUGLAR / TROVADOR

16-TROJAN HORSE: TRICK, FIFTH COLUMN IN ENEMY LINES.

17-GREEK MYTHOLOGY: FABLES, STORIES ABOUT GODS AND HEROES.

18-PARTHENON, ERECHTHEION: GREEK TEMPLES. SEE ORACLES .

19-PHALANX: INFANTRY BLOCK (1,000 SOLDIERS)

20-SARISSA:

21-GREEK FIRE:

22-AGORA: A PLACE FOR PUBLIC ASSEMBLY; PUBLIC SQUARE: PHILOSOPHERS, POLITICAL DEBATES. MARKETPLACE.
 

PEOPLE, LEADERS, THINKERS

1-MINOS: LEGENDARY KING OF CRETE IN 2600 BC. AEGEAN, THESEUS, ARIADNE, MINOTAUR, AND THE LABYRINTH.

2-AGAMEMNON (king of Mycenae ) & MENELAUS (king of Sparta and Helen's husband): (1250 BC.) . TROJAN WAR

3-HOMER: BLIND BARD : THE ILIAD & THE ODYSSEY

4-THEMISTOCLES : ATHENIAN LEADER. MARATHON, THE NAVY, SALAMIS.

5-PERICLES: ATHENIAN LEADER DURING THE "GOLDEN AGE" (461-429 BC.). HE DIED DURING THE PELOPONNESIAN WAR VICTIM OF THE PLAGUE THAT HIT ATHENS.

6-HERODOTUS: GREEK HISTORIAN.

7-DARIUS: PERSIAN EMPEROR.

8-XERSES: DARIUS’ SON.

9-PHIDIAS: GREEK SCULPTOR.

10-PHILIP II: KING OF MACEDON

11-ALEXANDER THE GREAT: SON OF PHILIP II

12-SOPHOCLES, EURIPIDES, AND AESCHYLUS: MASTERS OF GREEK TRAGEDY (THEATER).

13-ARISTOPHANES: GREEK COMEDY

14-SOCRATES, PLATO, AND ARISTOTLE: PHILOSOPHERS.

15-HIPPOCRATES: FATHER OF MEDICINE.

16-EUCLID, THALES, ARCHIMEDES, AND PYTHAGORAS: MATHEMATICIANS AND PHYSICISTS.

17-DRACO: LEGAL CODE / FIRST WRITTEN CONSTITUTION OF ATHENS.
 

                                                        Homer, the blind bard

HISTORY OF GREECE

1-MINOAN PERIOD: 2700 - 1450 BCE.
Bronze Age civilization. The term "Minoan" was coined by British archeologist Sir Arthur Evans after the mythic king Minos, who was associated with the labyrinth, the Minotaur, Thesseus, and Ariadne (Greek Mythology). Maybe Greek cities paying tribute to Crete; at least cultural influence. Monumental palaces: Cnossos. Cities had not walls. Widespread trade connections. Centralized government. Home to many ships. Writing system: Linear A (pictorial signs).

2-MYCENAEAN PERIOD: 1600 - 1150 BCE.
Historical setting of the epics of Homer (600s BCE). German businessman Heinrich Schliemann discovered Troy (1870) and shaft graves with treasures at Mycenae (1876). Several citadels on hilltops, thick fortified walls. Baked clay tablets written in Linear B (pictorial signs). No names of individual kings. Cultural uniformity (result of intense trade), but political independent centers of power. War-like people. Good sailors and traders. Production and exports of wine & olive oil. Conflicts with Hittites: Trojan War (1200s BCE). Many explanations attribute the fall of the Mycenaean civilization to environmental catastrophe combined with Dorian invasions from the south.

3-GREECE’S “DARK AGE”: 1150 - 800 BCE.
The Greek Dark Age: fewer and smaller settlements, suggesting famine and depopulation. There were no more monumental stone buildings, writing ceased, vital trade links were lost, and towns and villages were abandoned. The population of Greece fell and the world of organized state armies, kings, officials, and redistributive systems disappeared.

4-ARCHAIC PERIOD: 800 - 480 BCE.
Phoenician ships began to visit the Aegean. Mycenaean Linear B script was replaced with a new alphabet system, adopted from the Phoenicians. Explosion of population. Greek polis (city-states), fiercely independent. Hilltop acropolis for emergencies. The agora. Hoplite warfare. Hellenes vs. Barbarians. Hellenes: Ionians, Dorians, and Aeolians. Coins made trade easier. Political instability. Era of Tyrants: 650-500. Greek Mythology. State-sponsored festivals. The oracle (Apollo’s at Delphi). Growing emphasis on the individual. Pre-Socratic Philosophers (Thales, Anaximander, Pythagoras, Heraclitus, Democritus, etc.) challenged traditional religion. The rise of democracy, philosophy, theatre, and poetry. Herodotus: History. Sparta: Territorial expansion and capture of POWs (Helots). Military camp in a permanent state of preparedness. Professional army; best soldiers. Cautious and isolationist foreign policy. Athens: No professional army. Solon (594): the reforms and Peisistratos (546): the tyrant. Cyrus’s conquest of Lydia (546). Darius (490) & Xerxes (480). Persian Wars (490 - 480): Battles of Marathon (490, the Thermopylae (480), and Salamis (480).

5-CLASSIC PERIOD: 480 - 323 BCE.
After victory in Persian Wars, Pericles (461-429) turned the Delian League into an “Athenian Empire”. Contributions of member city-states to build Athenian navy and monumental buildings in Athens. Athens required submission from other cities. Use of force against any city refusing. Trireme (fast vessel w/ 170 rowers). The Golden Age. He fostered democracy (only male citizens: 15% of population). Use of Ostracism. Athens became the most important commercial center in the eastern Mediterranean. Cultural achievements (Festivals, Theater, Art, Philosophy, etc.) based on profits from the “empire”. Sophists (traveling teachers). Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Slaves = 30% of population. Women vs. Goddesses. Men’s bisexuality. Peloponnesian Wars (431-404): Sparta defeated Athens. Philip of Macedonia created the Confederacy of Corinth to control Greek city-states. Alexander became king (336) and led offensive against Persian Empire. Defeat of Darius III at Gaugamela (331)

6-HELLENISTIC PERIOD: 338 - 30 BCE. (Macedonian Empire).
The conquered lands included Asia Minor, Assyria, the Levant, Egypt, Mesopotamia, Media, Persia, and parts of modern Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the steppes of central Asia. After years of constant campaigning, Alexander died in 323 BC. These huge territories became subject to a strong Greek influence (Hellenization) for the next three centuries, until the rise of Rome in the west, and of Parthia in the east. Blend of Greek and eastern cultures: a hybrid hellenistic culture. The empire broke up into three major kingdoms: The Selucid (Persia), Ptolomaic (Egypt), and Antigonid (Macedonia). Cosmopolitan age of long-distance trade; rise of libraries and universities.  The empires promoted immigration of Greeks from homeland to the territories in exchange for lands and privileged positions. Alexandria, in Egypt, became a great city with more than half million people (Mausoleum of Alexander, the Library, the Museum –House of the Muses-, promoted the work of poets, philosophers, and scientists. The Lighthouse, public baths, gymnasiums, etc.)

7- GRECO-BACTRIAN KINGDOM: 250 to 125 BCE
It was founded around 250 BCE when the Seleucid military governor of Bactria, Sogdiana and Margiana decided to get the independence of his territory from the Seleucid Empire that at the time was involved in a war against Ptolemaic Egypt. It became the easternmost area of the Hellenistic world. The Parthian Empire (238 BC - 226 AD), the third Iranian kingdom during ancient times, defeated the Greek Seleucid Empire & Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, ending the Hellenization of Iran. The Empire also became a rival state of the powerful Roman Empire.

8-GREECE: A ROMAN PROVINCE.

GREECE:  A PENINSULA WITH A ROCKY LAND AND SURROUNDED BY WATER: SAILORS. GREEKS LIVE ON THE SHORES OF THE SEA "LIKE FROGS AROUND A POND" -PLATO.
 

 

The Minotaur

 

The Trojan Horse

                                                          The Acropolis, Athens

Greek Architecture          Click to See PowerPoints on Greek Art: http://iris.nyit.edu/arthistory/

                                                               The Erechtheum. The Carythids.

The Parthenon, Athens
 

PERSIAN WARS (490 - 480)

-WARS TO DEFEND GREEK CITIES FROM PERSIAN ATTACKS.

-THIS RELATED AND UNITED THE CITIES.

-DARIUS SENT 600 WARSHIPS AND THOUSANDS OF SOLDIERS, BUT ATHENIANS SURPRISED THEM WHILE LANDING AND DEFEATED THEM.

-PHIDIPPIDES RAN 20 MILES FROM MARATHON TO ATHENS TO TELL ABOUT THE VICTORY. WHEN HE ARRIVED, HE YELLED: "NIKE", AND FALL DEAD. (LEGEND). ANOTHER VERSION IS THAT HE RUN TO SPARTA (MORE THAN 100 MILES) TO ASK FOR HELP.

-YEARS LATER, XERXES SENT 1,000 SHIPS AND 20,000 SOLDIERS. TWENTY CITIES JOINED TO FIGHT THE PERSIANS. ATHENIANS COMMANDED THE NAVY AND SPARTANS THE ARMY.

ATHENS WAS DESTROYED, BUT THE GREEKS WON THE WAR.

Battle of Marathon: 490 BC

Battle Thermopylae (300 Spartans): 480 BC

Battle of Salamis: 480 BC

The Greek Phalanx. The Sarissa.

Division of the Empire after Alexander's Death.

Greek Sculpture         Click to See PowerPoints on Greek Art: http://iris.nyit.edu/arthistory/

Hermes & Infant Dionysus by Praxiteles             Venus de (of) Milo                   Discobolus by Myron                                                                
                                                                                  C L A S S I C   P E R I O D

 
                                                           H E L L E N I S T I C   P E R I O D

Greek Philosophy:

Philosophy is the discipline concerned with the questions of how one should live (ethics); what sorts of things exist and what are their essential natures (metaphysics); what counts as genuine knowledge (epistemology); and what are the correct principles of reasoning (logic). The word itself is of Greek origin: φιλοσοφία (philosophía), a compound of φίλος (phílos: friend, or lover) and σοφία (sophía: wisdom).

Ancient Greek philosophy may be divided into the pre-Socratic period, the Socratic period, and the post-Aristotelian period.

The pre-Socratic period:

 Thales of Miletus (624 BC–546 BC): The "father of science". Thales' most famous belief was his cosmological doctrine, which held that the world originated from water.

Anaximander of Miletus (610 BC–546 BC): He was the first to use the word apeírôn (infinite, limitless, endless, primordial mass) to designate the original principle. He is the first philosopher to employ, in a philosophical context, the term arkhế, which until then had meant beginning or origin. For him, it became no longer a mere point in time, but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be. Anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came (apeiron). He is called the "Father of Cosmology" and founder of astronomy.

 Anaximenes of Miletus  (585 BC–525 BC): He held that the air, with its variety of contents, its universal presence, its vague associations in popular fancy with the phenomena of life and growth, is the source of all that exists. Everything is air at different degrees of density, and under the influence of heat, which expands, and of cold, which contracts its volume, it gives rise to the several phases of existence.

 Pythagoras of Samos(580-500 BC): He is revered as a great mathematician (known as "the father of numbers," ) and scientist. He said that the body is the prison of the soul; to free the soul, it necessary to punish the body. He believed in transmigration, or the reincarnation of the soul again and again into the bodies of humans, animals, or vegetables until it became moral. He said that music is the medicine of the soul. He was one of the first to propose that the thought processes and the soul were located in the brain and not the heart. Everything is based on numbers: He assigned roles for the numbers as follows: one was reason, two was opinion, four was justice, five was marriage because it was the sum of the first odd and the first even numbers (one was disregarded), seven was virgin because it neither factors or produces among the numbers one through ten. Odd numbers were masculine and even were feminine. Pythagoreans believed that a man's words were usually careless and misrepresented him and that when someone was "in doubt as to what he should say, he should always remain silent".

 Heraclitus of Ephesus, known as "The Obscure" (536-470 BC): He claimed that the nature of everything is change itself; according to some interpretations he uses fire - with its connotations of both Promethean/human "fire" and the cosmic fire to explain the origin of life. Heraclitus is recognized as one of the earliest dialectical philosophers with his acknowledgment of the universality of change and development through internalcontradictions.

 Parmenides of Elea, a city on the southern coast of Italy (515-440 BC): He argued that the every-day perception of reality of the physical world is mistaken, and that the reality of the world is “One Being”: unchanging, indestructible. He became an early exponent of the duality of appearance and reality. Parmenides claimed that the truth cannot be known through sensory perception. Only pure reason (Logos) will result in the understanding of the truth of the world. This is because the perception of things or appearances is deceptive.

 Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, Asia Minor (500 BC–428 BC): All things have existed from the beginning. But originally they existed in infinitesimally small fragments of themselves, endless in number and inextricably combined. They were the seeds (spermata) or miniatures of corn and flesh and gold in the primitive mixture. This peculiar thing called Mind, was no less illimitable than the chaotic mass, but it stands pure and independent, a thing of finer texture, alike in all its manifestations and everywhere the same. This subtle agent, possessed of all knowledge and power, is especially seen ruling in all the forms of life. We seem to see things coming into being and passing from it; but that’s only a perception: decease and growth only mean a disruption / disaggregation or aggregation of the “seeds” or small fragments.

 Empedocles of Agrigentum, Sicily (490-430 BC): The origin of all matter is made up of four elements: water, earth, air and fire. Empedocles postulated something called “love”  to explain the attraction of different forms of matter, and of something called “strife” to account for their separation. He was also one of the first people to state the theory that light travels at a finite speed.

 Democritus of Abdera, in Thrace (460-370 BC): All matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements which he called atoms or "invisible units". The knowledge of truth is difficult, since the perception through the senses is subjective. As from the same senses derive different impressions for each individual, then through the sense-impressions we cannot judge the truth.

The Socratic period:

Socrates of Athens (470–399 BC): Socrates is customarily regarded as the father of political philosophy and ethics, and as a fountainhead of all the main themes in Western philosophy in general.The Socratic Method is a dialectic method of inquiry, largely applied to the examination of key moral concepts. The practice involves asking a series of questions surrounding a central issue. Generally this involves the defense of one point of view against another and is oppositional. The method of Socrates is a search for the underlying hypotheses, assumptions, or axioms, which may subconsciously shape one's opinion, and to make them the subject of scrutiny, to determine their consistency with other beliefs. Socrates said that wisdom is determined by the awareness of one’s own ignorance. Socrates may have believed that wrongdoing is a consequence of ignorance. Socrates believed that the best way for people to live was to focus on self-development rather than the pursuit of material wealth. Socrates stressed that "virtue was the most valuable of all possessions”; the ideal life was spent in search of the Good.
Socrates openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates objected to any form of government that did not conform to his ideal of a perfect republic led by philosophers. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants. In addition to this, he favored Sparta (Athens’ enemy). These political issues led to his  trial and execution. He could have avoided the trial by abandoning philosophy and going home to mind his own business. After his conviction, he could have avoided the death penalty by escaping with the help of his friends. The reason for his cooperation with the state's mandate was toprove his point.

Antisthenes of Athens (444-365 BC): Founder of the Cynic school of philosophy. They rejected the social values of their time, often flouting conventions in shocking ways to prove their point. A popular conception of the intellectual characteristics is the modern sense of "cynic," implying a sneering disposition to disbelieve in the goodness of human motives.

Plato of Athens (428–347 BC): Plato is one of the three great philosophers and also a mathematician, writer of philosophical dialogues, and founder of the Academy, the first institution of higher learning in the western world. Plato is widely believed to have been a student of Socrates and to have been deeply influenced by his teacher's unjust death. "Platonism" is a term coined by scholars to refer to the intellectual consequences of denying the reality of the material world. Plato's Theory of Forms indicates that the sensory world that is the reality which we as human beings experience, is only a shadow of a higher realm. In this higher realm, Plato assures us that there exist the Forms or Ideas that embody the true nature of the pale shadows. What we know as sweet is only an afterimage of the Form of Sweetness. The luminous brightness of the sun is only a corporeal display of the Form of Brightness. His “Forms” are seeing as ideas / images generated / created by God for the humans to see.  Plato stated that knowledge is justified true belief. Plato argues that belief is to be distinguished from knowledge on account of justification. Plato associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another, which he calls "expertise". Plato argues that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives their account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. And opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives their account of something by way of the non-sensible forms, because these forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. It is only in this sense that Plato uses the term "knowledge." Plato’s most famous political doctrines are contained in The Republic.

Aristotle of Stageira in the region of Chalcidice (Macedonia) (384 BC–322 BC): The third of the great Greek philosophers, a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Aristotle defines his philosophy as "the science of the universal essence of that which is actual". Plato had defined it as the "science of the idea", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of phenomena. Aristotle finds the “universal” in particular things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular. Aristotle philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences. Real knowledge comes from studying the material world.
The Organon is the name given by Aristotle's followers, the Peripatetics, to the standard collection of six of his works on logic. The works are Categories, Prior Analytics, De Interpretatione, Posterior Analytics, Sophistical Refutations, and Topics. The Organon was used in the school founded by Aristotle at the Lyceum. His Logic is based on the syllogism: "conclusion" and "inference"). Syllogism is a kind of logical argument in which one proposition (the conclusion) is inferred from two others arguments (the premises) that have to be compared to lead to the conclusion.
Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of immaterial being", or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction". He calls metaphysics "first philosophy", and also "the theological science".
Change or movement happen for a reason or cause. The Material Cause is that from which a thing comes into existence as from its parts, constituents, substratum or materials. The Formal Cause tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis, or archetype. The Efficient Cause is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. The Final Cause is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve. There was a First Cause that was not caused, which is perfect, infinite and immaterial.
The supreme good is achieving happiness and it does not come from pleasure or virtue, but from the satisfaction of individual needs.

The post-Aristotelian period:

 Epicurus of Samos (341–270 BC): Founder of Epicureanism, a popular school of thought in Hellenistic Philosophy that spanned about 600 years. For Epicurus, the purpose of philosophy was to attain the happy, tranquil life, characterized by the absence of pain and fear, and by living a self-sufficient life surrounded by friends. He taught that pleasure and pain are the measures of what is good and bad, that death is the end of the body and the soul and not to be feared, that the gods do not reward or punish humans, that the universe is infinite and eternal, and that events in the world are ultimately based on the motions and interactions of atoms moving in empty space.

Hipparchia, the Cynic (340-?? BC): Little is known about Hipparchia, for several reasons. She was a member of the unpopular Cynic school and she was a woman, and as such, not supposed to be involved in what the ancient Greeks perceived as the male pursuit of philosophy. She chose a life void of material possessions and artificial social conventions. According to St. Augustine, Hipparchia and her husband were said to follow this so closely that they consummated their marriage by having sex on a public porch.

Zeno of Citium, Cyprus (333 BC - 264 BC): Hellenistic founder of Stoicism, the school of philosophy. Stoicism teaches that self-control, fortitude and detachment from distracting emotions, sometimes interpreted as an indifference to pleasure or pain, allows one to become a clear thinker, level-headed and unbiased. A primary aspect of Stoicism would be described as improving the individual’s spiritual well-being. Virtue, reason, and natural law are prime directives. By mastering passions and emotions, Stoics believe it is possible to overcome the discord of the outside world and find peace within oneself. Stoicism holds that passion distorts truth, and that the pursuit of truth is virtuous.
Everything is material, including God. Nature, the Universe, and God are the same thing. The Universe is ruled by the supreme reason or natural laws. Pantheism: "God is All" and "All is God". It is the view that everything is of an all-encompassing immanent abstract God; or that the universe, or nature, and God are equivalent.

 Chrysippus of Soli (280–207 BC): Honored as the second founder of Stoicism, he initiated the success of Stoicism as the one of the most influential philosophical movements for centuries in the Greek and Roman world.

 Pyrrho of Elis (360-270 BC): He is credited as being the first skeptic philosopher and inspiration for the school known as Pyrrhonism founded by Aenesidemus in the 1st century BC. Pyrrhonism, is the philosophical position that one should avoid the postulation of final truths. Skepticism refers more specifically to any one of several propositions. These include propositions about:
1-the limitations of knowledge,
2-a method of obtaining knowledge through systematic doubt and continual testing,
3-the arbitrariness, relativity, or subjectivity of moral values,
4-a method of intellectual caution and suspended judgment,
5-a lack of confidence in positive motives for human conduct or positive outcomes for human enterprises, that is, cynicism and pessimism.

 Sextus Empiricus.(??-??): His philosophical work is the most complete surviving account of ancient Greek and Roman skepticism. Sextus Empiricus advises that we should suspend judgment about virtually all beliefs, that is, we should neither affirm any belief as true nor deny any belief as false. This view is known as Pyrrhonian skepticism. Sextus did not deny the possibility of knowledge. He criticizes the Academic skeptic's claim that nothing is knowable as being an affirmative belief. Instead, Sextus advocates simply giving up belief: that is, suspending judgment about whether or not anything is knowable.

Most of this information was obtained from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

Greek Theater

    
Aeschylus                   Euripides                   Sophocles

Greek Mythology

Greek gods can be divided into eight classes:

THE FIRST CLASS: The First Born gods. These were the primeval beings that emerged at creation to form the very fabric of universe: Earth, Sea, Sky, Night, Day, etc. Although they were divinities they were purely elemental in form: Gaia was the literal Earth, Pontos was the Sea, and Ouranos (Uranus) was the Dome of Heaven. However they were sometimes represented assuming anthropomorphic shape, albeit ones that were indivisible from their native element. Gaia the earth, for example, might manifest herself as a matronly woman half-risen from the ground and the sea might lift her head above the waves in the shape of a sea-formed woman.

THE SECOND CLASS: The Nature Elements and Nymphai, who nurtured life in the four elements: fresh-water (Naiades), forest (Dryades), beast-loving (Satyroi), manne Tritones, etc.

THE THIRD CLASS: The Body and Mind Spirits: Sleep (Hypnos), Love (Eros), Joy (Euphrosyne), Hate (Ens), Fear (Phobos), Death (Thanatos), Old Age (Geras), etc.

THE FOURTH CLASS: The Gods who controlled the forces of nature and bestowed civilized arts upon mankind.

Sky Gods: Hellos (Sun), Anemoi (Winds: Boreas was the north wind and bringer of cold winter air; Notus was the south wind and bringer of the storms of late summer and autumn, and Zephyrus was the west wind and bringer of light spring and early summer breezes; Eurus, the east wind,).

Sea Gods: The Nereides, Triton, Glaukos, etc

Underworld Gods: Persephone, Hekate (goddess of witchcraft, ghosts, magic and mythology)

Agricultural-Earth Gods: Ploutos (wealth), etc

Pastoral Earth Gods: Pan (god of shepherds and flocks, of mountain wilds, hunting and rustic music), Aristaios (son of Apollo and the huntress Cyrene, patron god of cattle, fruit trees, hunting, husbandry and bee-keeping. He was also a culture-hero and taught humanity dairy skills (including cheese making) and the use of nets and traps in hunting, as well as how to cultivate olives.), etc

City Gods: Hestia (goddess of the hearth, of the domesticity and the family), the Horae (the Hours: three goddesses controlling orderly life. They were daughters of Zeus and Themis, half-sisters to the Moirae. There were two generations of Horae: The first generation consisted of Thallo, Auxo, and Carpo, who were the goddesses of the seasons (the Greeks only recognized spring, summer and autumn); The second generation comprised Eunomia, Dike, and Eirene, who were law and order goddesses that maintained the stability of society, etc

Olympian Gods: Zeus, Poseidon, The Muses, Hebe (goddess of youth), etc

Titan Gods: Themis, Kronos, Prometheus, etc

Deified Mortals: Herakles, Asklepios, etc

THE FIFTH CLASS: The 12 Olympian Gods who governed the universe and commanded the legions of lesser gods and spirits. They were Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Artemis, Apollo, Ares, Athena, Aphrodite, Hephaestus, Hermes, Dionysus, and Hestia.

THE SIXTH CLASS: The Constellations which circled the heavenly night sky. Every constellation, including the twelve signs of the Zodiac, was possessed by one or more spirits: Saggitarius was the centaur Kheiron, Gemini was the Dioskouroi Twins (Castor and Pollux: the twin sons of Leda and the brothers of Helen of Troy and Clytemnestra, etc.

THE SEVENTH CLASS: The Fabulous Monsters, Beasts, and Giants of myth. They were semi-divine creatures, closely related to the gods: Giants, Dragon, Centaurs, Cerberus, Sphinx, Sirens, etc.

THE EIGHTH CLASS: The Semi-Divine Heroes, who were worshipped after death as minor divinities. They included great heroes like Achilles, Theseus and Perseus; heroines such as Almena, Helene and Baubo; and founding kings like Erikhthonios, Kadmos and Pelops.

There were many divinities in the Greek pantheon that fell into more than one of these categories.

THE TWELVE OLYMPIAN GODS

The Greek Pantheon was ruled by a council of twelve great gods known as the Olympians, namely Zeus, Hera, Poseidon, Demeter, Athena, Hephaestus, Ares, Aphrodite, Apollo, Artemis, Hermes, Dionysus, and sometimes Hestia. These twelve gods demanded worship from all their subjects. Those who failed to honor any one of the Twelve with due sacrifice and libation were duly punished. Directly and through a host of divine minions, the twelve gods governed all aspects of human life.

ZEUS

Modern Spellings: Zeus

Roman Name: Jupiter, Jove

God of: King of Heaven, Sky, Weather, Fate, Kingship

Parents: Titan Kronos & Titanis Rhea

Spouse: Hera

Offspring: Athena, Apollo, Artemis, Ares, Aphrodite, Hermes, Dionysus, Heracles.

Animals: Golden eagle, Wolf

Plants: Oak, Celery

Iconography: Lightning bolt, Lotus staff, Eagle, Oak wreath

POSEIDON

Modern Spelling: Poseidon

Roman Name:  Neptune

God of:  King of the Seas, Rivers, Earthquakes, Horses

Parents: Titan Kronos & Titanis Rhea

Spouse: Amphitrite

Offspring: Triton

Animals: Horse, Bull, Dolphin

Plants: Seaweed, Pine Tree

Iconography:  Trident, Fish

HERA

Modern Spelling: Hera

Roman Name: Juno

Goddess of: Queen of Heaven, the Sky, Women, Marriage, Impregnation

Parents: Titan Kronos & Titanis Rhea

Spouse: Zeus

Offspring: Ares, Hephaestus, Eileithyia (goddess of childbirth and midwiving,), Hebe.

Animals: Cuckoo, Peacock, Crane, Hawk, Cow (Heifer), Lion

Plants: Chaste Tree, Pomegranate

Iconography: Lotus staff, Crown, Lion

DEMETER

Modern Spelling: Demeter

Roman Name: Ceres

Goddess of: Agriculture, Grain & Bread, the Afterlife

Parents: Titan Kronos & Titanis Rhea

Spouse: None

Offspring: Persephone, Ploutos (wealth)

Animals: Serpent, Swine, Gecko

Plants: Wheat, Barley, Poppy, Mint

Iconography: Grain Sheaf, Lotus Staff, Torch, Cornucopia

APOLLO

Modern Spelling: Apollo

Roman Name: Apollo

God of: Music, Prophecy, Education, Healing & Disease

Parents: God Zeus and Titanis Leto

Spouse: None

Offspring: Asklepios, others see pg 2 (below)

Animals: Swan, Raven, Mouse, Wolf

Plants: Laurel, Larkspur

Iconography: Lyre, Laurel wreath or branch, Bow & arrows, Delphic tripod

ARTEMIS

Modern Spelling: Artemis

Roman Name: Diana

Goddess of: Hunting, Wild Animals, Children, Choirs, Disease

Parents: God Zeus & Titanis Leto

Spouse: None (Virgin Goddess)

Children None (Virgin Goddess)

Animals: Deer, Bear, Wild boar, Guinea fowl, Quail

Plants: Cypress, Walnut, Amaranth-flower

Iconography: Bow & arrows, Hunting spears, Lyre, Deer

ATHENE

Modern Spelling: Athena

Roman Name: Minerva

Goddess of: Warcraft, Heroism, Wisdom, Pottery, Weaving, Olives & Oil

Parents: God Zeus & Titanis Metis

Spouse: None (Virgin Goddess)

Offspring: None (Virgin Goddess)

Animals: Little Owl, Crow

Plants: Olive Tree

Iconography: Greek helmet, Aegis (Goat-skin breastplate), Spear

ARES

Modern Spelling: Ares

Roman Name: Mars

God of: War, Battle, Manliness

Parents: God Zeus & Goddess Hera

Spouse: Aphrodite (mistress)

Offspring: Deimos (personification of dread), Phobos (personification of fear and horror)

Animals: Serpent, Vulture, Woodpecker, Eagle-owl

Plants: Perhaøs Manna Ash

Iconography: Helmet, Spear

APHRODITE

Modern Spelling: Aphrodite

Roman Name: Venus

Goddess of: Love, Beauty, Pleasure, Procreation

Parents: God Zeus & Titanis Dione; or Born of the sea foam (Uranus’ testicles)

Spouse: Hephaestus, later Ares; many lovers

Offspring: Eros

Animals: Turtle dove, Sparrow, Goose, Hare

Plants: Apple Tree, Rose, Myrtle, Myrrh Tree, Anemone, Lettuce

Iconography: Eros (winged godling), Apple, Dove

HERMES

Modern Spelling: Hermes

Roman Name: Mercury

God of: Animal Husbandry, Travel, Trade, Athletics, Language, Thievery, Good Luck, Guide of the Dead, Herald of the Gods

Parents: God Zeus & Nymph Maya

Spouse: None

Children: Pan

Animals: Tortoise, Sheep, Cattle, Hawk

Plants: Crocus, Strawberry Tree

Iconography: Herald’s Rod, Traveler’s Cap, Winged Boots

HEPHAISTOS

Modern Spelling: Hephaestus

Roman Name: Vulcanus (Vulcan)

God of: Metalworking, Fire, Building, Sculpture, Volcanism

Parents: Goddess Hera (no father)

Spouse: Aphrodite or Kharis

Offspring:

Animals: Donkey, Crane

Plants: Fennel

Iconography: Hammer, Tongs, Anvil, Donkey, Crane-head

DIONYSOS

Modern Spelling: Dionysus

Roman Name: Liber, Bacchus

God of: Wine, Drunkenness, Madness, Parties, Vegetation, the Afterlife

Parents: God Zeus & Princess Semele

Spouse: Ariadne

Offspring:

Animals: Leopard, Lynx, Tiger, Serpent, Bull, Goat, Donkey

Plants: Grape-vine, Ivy, Bindweed, Silver Fir

Iconography: Thyrsos (pine-cone tipped staff), Grapes, Ivy wreath, Leopard

HESTIA

Modern Spelling: Hestia

Roman Name: Vesta

Goddess of: Home, Hearth, Family, Meals, Sacrificial offerings

Parents: Titan Kronos & Titanis Rhea

Spouse: None (Virgin Goddess)

Offspring: None (Virgin Goddess)

Animals: Swine

Plants: Chaste Tree

Iconography: Chaste tree branch. Head veil Kettle

HAIDES

Modern Spelling: Hades

Roman Name: Pluto

God of: King of the Underworld, the Dead, Death

Parents: Titan Kronos & Titanis Rhea

Spouse: Persephone

Offspring:

Animals: Screech owl

Plants: Asphodel, Mint, White Poplar

Iconography: Cornucopia, Bird-tipped staff

PERSEPHONE

Modern Spelling: Persephone

Roman Name: Proserpina

Goddess of: Queen of the Underworld, the Afterlife, Spring Growth, Grain

Parents: God Zeus & Goddess Demeter

Spouse: Hades

Offspring:

Animals: Screech owl

Plants Wheat, Narcissus, Black Poplar, Mint, Asphodel

Iconography: Eleusinian torch or torches, Wheat sheaf

The information for this section was taken from http://www.theoi.com/Pantheon.html

The Olympics

Greek Costumes

6-ROME

Objectives

1-Map the expansion of Rome and suggest reasons for its successful expansion. ((I A)

2-Identify factors which led to the decline of the Roman Republic and the rise of the Roman Empire (II B)

3-Give examples of cultural diffusion throughout history (V A)

4-List major cultural achievements of early civilizations (V C).

5-Compare and contrast aspects of Roman society to contemporary societies (V C).

6-Identify the common themes expressed in the mythology, legends, and values of various groups of people. (VI A).

7-Discuss the origin and development of Christianity (VI B).

8-Compare major world cultures based on religious and moral beliefs (VI B).
 

VOCABULARY:

1-PATRICIANS: "FATHERS OF THE STATE"; LAND OWNERS, NOBLES, RULERS.

2-PLEBEIANS: FARMERS, TRADERS, COMMON PEOPLE. CITIZENS WHO PAID TAXES AND SERVED IN THE ARMY.

3-REPUBLIC: CITIZENS VOTE TO ELECT REPRESENTATIVES. PLEBEIANS WERE NOT ALLOWED - AT THE BEGINNING- TO BE SENATORS (NOT A DEMOCRACY).

4-PLANK: PLATFORM IN ROMAN WAR SHIPS TO BOARD CARTHAGINIAN SHIPS.

5-CENTURY: INFANTRY COMPANY OF A HUNDRED SOLDIERS / CENTURION

6-COHORT: BATTALION OF SIX CENTURIES.

7-LEGION: BRIGADE OF TEN COHORTS AND 7 HUNDRED HORSEMEN

8-PRETOR: ROMAN MAGISTRATE

9-CRUCIFIXION:

10-AUGUSTUS: REVEREND ONE, GOD.

11-CAESAR: EMPEROR.

12-PROVINCIES: LANDS OUTSIDE ITALY PART OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE.

13-PAX ROMANA: OBEY THE RULES AND PAY TAXES TO ROME TO AVOID WAR; ORDER WAS ESTABLISHED AND COMMERCE FLOURISHED.

14-COLOSSEUM: SPORT AND CIRCUS ARENA.

15-GLADIATOR: SLAVE FORCED TO FIGHT FOR HIS LIFE.

16-BARBARIC TRIBES: PEOPLES WITH CULTURES DIFFERENT FROM ROMAN ( CELTS, FRANKS, GERMANS, GOTHS, VANDALS, AND OTHERS).

17-VETO:

18-ROMAN TRIBES: 35 DISTRICTS WERE PLEBEIANS LIVED.
 

LEADERS

1-ROMULUS AND REMUS: TWINS WHO FOUNDED ROME.

2-PYRRHUS: GREEK GENERAL WHO FOUGHT ROME.

3-HANNIBAL: CARTHAGINIAN GENERAL WHO FOUGHT ROME.

4-CRASSUS: ROMAN POLITICIAN AND GENERAL WHO FOUGHT SPARTACUS.

5-POMPEY: ROMAN GENERAL

6-JULIUS CAESAR: ROMAN GENERAL, DICTATOR, AND HISTORIAN

7-BRUTUS: CAESAR’S GODSON WHO PARTICIPATED IN HIS KILLING.

8-OCTAVIAN (AUGUSTUS CAESAR): CAESAR’S NEPHEW, ROMAN FIRST EMPEROR

9-MARK ANTHONY: CAESAR’S CLOSEST FRIEND, CLEOPATRA HUSBAND

10-SPARTACUS: THRACIAN WHO DESERTED THE ROMAN ARMY AND WAS CAPTURED AND SOLD AS A SLAVE TO A GLADIATORS’ SCHOOL. LEADER OF A SLAVES’ REBELLION.

11-TIBERIUS: AUGUSTUS’ STEPSON, 2nd. EMPEROR OF ROME

12-CALIGULA: 3rd. ROMAN EMPEROR. A HORSE SENATOR.

13-CLAUDIUS: 4th. ROMAN EMPEROR, MESSALINA’S HUSBAND

14-NERO: CLAUDIUS’ STEPSON, 5th. ROMAN EMPEROR, "ARTIST", SET FIRE TO ROME.

15-JESUS CHRIST (4 BC. - AD. 29) -MISTAKE OF 4 YEARS MADE BY DIONYSUS THE EXIGUOUS (AD. 525). (749 -782 -ROMAN FOUNDATION: 753 BC.)

1...2... 3..................................749.................................................782 ROME CALENDAR

753 BC...................................4BC................................................AD. 29 Gregorian Calendar

16-HEROD THE GREAT  / HEROD ANTIPAS : KINGS OF JUDEA - JUDGED JESUS CHRIST AND SENT HIM TO PONTIUS PILATE.

17-TRAJAN: ROMAN EMPEROR

18-MARCUS AURELIUS: ROMAN EMPEROR

19-ATTILA: KING OF THE HUNS

20-DIOCLETIAN: DIVIDED THE EMPIRE IN TWO

21-CONSTANTINE : ADOPTED CHRISTIANITY AS THE OFFICIAL RELIGION OF THE EMPIRE & MOVED THE CAPITAL TO BYZANTIUM.
 

Rome: Republic & Empire

1-Origins (753-507 BCE.):
Central location of Rome. River Tiber. Apennine range along the peninsula. Alps on the north. Mild climate. Romulus, Remus, and the wolf. The Palatine Hill: the centermost of the Seven Hills of Rome (The city was founded by Romulus on the Palatine Hill in 753 BCE.). Latins: myth that they were descendants of Latinus, the father-in-law of Aeneas (Troy) (See Virgil's Aeneid). Latin city-states, Rome one of them. Greeks in the south of Italy. Etruscan arrived in northern Italy about 800 BCE, maybe from Anatolia (Lydia) and conquered most of Italy.

2-Republic (507-31 BCE.):
Rome rebelled and gained independence from the Etruscans in 509. It also replaced Etruscan monarchy with a republican system based on a Senate, composed of the nobles (patricians) of the city, along with popular assemblies (political participation) and elected magistrates annually. In the Battle of Lake Regillus in 493 BCE, Rome won the supremacy over the Latin countries.  This supremacy became fixed when the Romans subdued the Etruscan cities of Volsci, Aequi, and Veii (394 BCE). Rome was now the dominant city in Latium. Rome was attacked by the Gaul in 387 BCE. Rome hastily rebuilt its buildings and went on the offensive, conquering the Etruscans and seizing territory from the Gaul in the north and pushing south against other Latins and the Greeks. Etruscans were assimilated.  Punic Wars against Carthage (264-202 BCE). Macedonian Wars against Hellenistic kingdoms (200-146 BCE). Roman military: the legions. Real center of power in Rome: Senate (members served for life, passed laws and elected consuls). Common people: Plebeians. Roman Constitution. Publication of the laws: Twelve Stone Tablets (450 BCE) to prevent arbitrary decisions and protect private property and individual rights. Tribunes (power of veto). Economic and social mobility led to individualism. Paterfamilias & Patron / Client relationship: socio-political subordination. Women were “like children in the eyes of the law”, but less constrained than the Greeks. Polytheism, sacrifices and rituals (equated with Greek gods). Male citizens, owners of land, had to serve in the army. Long absences led to the loss of their lands. Conquered populations accepting Roman rule (pay taxes) received Roman citizenship; many people were attracted by the culture and power of Rome. Conquest of Gaul / Celts (France) in 59-51 BCE by Julius Caesar. Governors for conquered provinces. Wealth from the conquests ended in hands of upper classes. Cheap slave labor (became foundation of the economy) provided by prisoners of war replaced bankrupted farmers, who now had a hard time to find work: growing idle urban masses, prone to riot. Poor, propertyless men are accepted into Roman Legions and promised farms upon retirement (100’s BCE). Army loyal to generals, not to the Republic / state. Civil Wars between military factions. Dictatorial control. Gladiators’ War or War of Spartacus: Slave rebellion (73-71 BCE). The Triumvirate (60-53 BCE):   Crassus, Pompeius, and Caesar dominated Roman politics for several years. It was opposed in the Senate by Cato and Cicero. Julius Caesar eliminated all rivals. Caesar is murdered on March 15^th. 44 BC in the Senate. Second Triumvirate (43-33 BCE.): Political alliance of Octavian, Caesar’s grandnephew (later Augustus) and generals Marcus Lepidus and Marcus Antonius. Anthony moved to Alexandria with Cleopatra VII of Egypt, even bearing children with her. Battle of Actium (31 BCE). Both Anthony and Cleopatra committed suicide in Alexandria (30 BCE).

 3-Empire (31 BCE.-476 CE.):
Octavian had control over the majority of Rome's legions. In January of 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps. Octavian proclaimed the Roman Principate. He tried to maintain the appearance of the Republic (republican traditions were very strong among people), but in reality became an emperor, even when he never called himself king or emperor. He was in control of the offices of proconsul, tribune for life, censor, imperium of the city of Rome (prefect). In 12 BCE he also became pontifex maximus. In 2 BCE, he was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country”. However, the dynastic principle never took deep root. He allied himself with wealthy merchants and landowners and created a new civil service to administer the empire for him. Emperors in the future were in reality chosen by the army; many of them were deified. The Twelve Tables were replaced by decrees of the Senate. The empire was controlled through a network of towns and cities. Walls, forts, and garrisons built to protect borders. Pax Romana and web of roads promoted commerce. Spread of Latin language and way of life (Romanization) in western provinces. Hellenistic cultured prevailed in the east. Jesus (rabbi / teacher, prophet, or political revolutionary) and the birth of Christianity. The Apostles carried on the work. First converts were disenfranchised people (women, slaves, gentiles, the poor). They suffered persecution and death. Third Century Crisis (235-284 CE): Political, military and economic problems. Corruption. Assassination of many emperors. Germanic tribes raids into the empire. Struggle against foreign enemies led to unending demands for money (higher taxes). War interrupted trade. People abandoned cities. Diocletian (284-305 CE) reforms (control prices to halt inflation, reduce taxes, stop exodus of people, etc.) tried to stop crisis. Reorganized and separated the empire in two (East and West). Constantine (306-337), first Christian Roman Emperor. Transfer of imperial capital from Rome to Byzantium / Constantinople / Istanbul (324). After the fall of Rome (476) under the attack of Germanic tribes, it became the capital of the Byzantine Empire. Emperor Justinian (527-565) tried to re-conquer territories of Roman Empire.

Roman contributions: Aqueducts, Public baths, Cement, Dome, Architecture (Coliseum, Pantheon), Roads, Roman numerals, Roman calendar, Roman law, the Senate, the Republic, Latin: Romance languages, Art.

PATRICIANS (10% OF ROMAN POPULATION) WERE THE RULING CLASS. SENATORS WERE PATRICIANS.
 

DEMOCRATIZATION

-494 BC. : PLEBEIANS RECEIVED THE RIGHT TO ELECT 2 TRIBUNES THAT LATER WERE INCREASED TO 10 (REPRESENT AND PROTECT THEIR INTERESTS). TRIBUNES SAT OUTSIDE THE SENATE’S DOOR AND COULD VETO LAWS.

-450 BC. : THE TWELVE BRONZE TABLES (THE LAWS OF ROME).

-280 BC. : PLEBEIANS WERE ALLOWED TO HOLD POLITICAL OFFICES AND BE ELECTED SENATORS. ONE CONSUL COULD COME FROM THE PLEBEIANS.
 
 

THE TWELVE TABLES
(451-450 B.C.)

This is the earliest attempt by the Romans to create a CODE OF LAW; it is also the earliest (surviving) piece of literature coming from the Romans. In the midst of a perennial struggle for legal and social protection and civil rights between the privileged class (patricians) and the common people (plebeians) a commission of ten men (Decemviri) was appointed (ca. 455 B.C.) to draw up a code of law which would be binding on both parties and which the magistrates (the 2 consuls) would have to enforce impartially. The commission produced enough statutes (most of them were already `customary law' anyway) to fill TEN TABLETS, but this attempt seems not to have been entirely satisfactory--especially to the plebeians. A second commission of ten was therefore appointed (450 B.C.) and two additional tablets were drawn up. The originals, said to have been inscribed on bronze, were probably destroyed when the Gauls sacked and burned Rome in the invasion of 387 B.C. The Twelve Tables give the student of Roman culture a chance to look into the workings of a society which is still quite agrarian in outlook and operations, and in which the main bonds which hold the society together and allow it to operate are: the clan (genos, gens), patronage (patron/client), and the inherent (and inherited) right of the patricians to leadership (in war, religion, law, and government). 

Comparison of Criminal Justice Systems
in Ancient Rome and the modern United States

ROMAN EXPANSION

-ROMAN DEFEAT THE ETRUSCANS.

-280 BC. : GREEKS SENT PYRRHUS TO FIGHT ROME ("ANOTHER SUCH VICTORY AND WE ARE LOST").

-PUNIC WARS:

264-241 BC. : FIRST PUNIC WAR (NAVY).

218-202 BC. : SECOND PUNIC WAR (HANNIBAL ATTACKED ROME AND SCIPION THE AFRICANUS ATTACKED CARTHAGE).

150 BC. : CARTHAGE IS DESTROYED.

200-197 / 171-168 BC. : 2nd. AND 3rd. MACEDONIAN WARS: GREECE BECAME A ROMAN PROVINCE.

MEDITERRANEAN SEA : MARE NOSTRUM.

133 BC. : ROME CONQUERED ASIA MINOR.
 

GENERALS AND SOLDIERS

                                                                                                     The Turtle

-60 BC. : FIRST TRIUMVIRATE (CRASSUS, POMPEY, AND JULIUS CAESAR): THE GOVERNMENT PASSED TO GENERALS’ HANDS.

-48 BC. : CAESAR DEFEATED POMPEY AND BECAME DICTATOR FOR LIFE: EFFECTIVE ADMINISTRATOR , BUILDING PROJECTS TO EASE UNEMPLOYMENT, LAWS AGAINST CRIME, CHANGED THE CALENDAR, CONQUERED THE GAUL AND BRITAIN, USED THE SENATE AS HE PLEASED UNTIL.....

-44 BC. : SENATORS STABBED CAESAR IN A SENATE MEETING

-SECOND TRIUMVIRATE (OCTAVIAN, MARK ANTHONY, AND MARCUS LEPIDUS).

-MARK ANTHONY MARRIED CLEOPATRA, QUEEN OF EGYPT. OCTAVIAN DECLARED WAR AGAINST THEM.

-31 BC. : OCTAVIAN NAVY DEFEATED EGYPTIAN ARMY. MARK ANTHONY AND CLEOPATRA COMMITTED SUICIDE.

-31 - 14 BC. : OCTAVIAN BECAME THE FIRST ROMAN EMPEROR (AUGUSTUS CAESAR).
 

SLAVES

-1/3 OF ROME INHABITANTS WERE SLAVES.

-SLAVES WERE USED AS SERVANTS, GLADIATORS, EUNUCHS, ETC.

-73 - 71 BC. : GLADIATORIAL WAR (SPARTACUS). CRASSUS WITH 8 LEGIONS DEFEATED THE REBELLION (6,000 PRISONERS WERE CRUCIFIED).
 

CHRISTIANITY

 
Nativity                                                           Teaching                                     Crucifixion

 
The Catacombs (Used by Christians to meet & hide)  Christians sent to the Coliseum to be eaten by the lions.

ROMAN EMPIRE (27 BC. - AD. 476)

AUGUSTUS: THE GOLDEN AGE OF ROME ( 27 BC. - AD. 14)

APPEARANCE OF PAST REPUBLICAN STYLE.

REBUILDING OF THE CITY (NEW TEMPLES, THEATERS BATHS, AND PUBLIC BUILDINGS.)

NEW ROADS AND A LARGE AQUEDUCT (SEE APPIAN WAY).

EMPEROR TRAJAN (AD. 98 - 117)

CONQUERED NEW TERRITORIES

GAVE FREE GRAIN TO THE POOR

ESTABLISHED THE FREE ENTRANCE TO THEATER AND CIRCUS

CREATED LOW - COST LOANS TO FARMERS

EMPEROR HADRIAN (AD. 117 - 138)

PASSED LAWS TO PROTECT WOMEN AND CHILDREN

LOWERED THE TAXES

BUILT NEW BUILDINGS

EMPEROR MARCO AURELIUS (AD. 161 - 180)

- DEFENDED THE EMPIRE FROM GERMAN ATTACKS

-FROM AD. 180 - 284 THERE WERE 29 EMPERORS; 25 WERE MURDERED.

-AD. 180 - 476 (ROME): ECONOMY DECLINED, EPIDEMICS, MORE FREQUENT AND STRONGER ATTACKS FROM "BARBARIC TRIBES"

-AD. 284 - 476: GRADUAL DIVISION OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE IN WESTERN (ROME) AND EASTERN (BYZANTIUM).

EMPEROR DIOCLETIAN (284-305 CE)

-REFORMS TO FACE THE CRISIS

-REORGANIZED & DIVIDED THE EMPIRE IN TWO: WESTERN & EASTERN.

EMPEROR CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (AD. 288 - 337)

-MOVED THE CAPITAL CITY OF THE EMPIRE TO BYZANTIUM (CONSTANTINOPLE) IN THE EAST.

-MADE CHRISTIANITY LEGAL.  THE OFFICIAL RELIGION.

AD. 476: ODOACRO, SON OF ONE OF THE ATTILA’S GENERALS (HUNS) , CONQUERED ROME AND FINISHED THE WESTERN ROMAN EMPIRE .

ROMAN ENTERTAINMENT

Chariot Race in the Circus Maximum


Gladiators in the Coliseum

  Public Bath

ROMAN CONTRIBUTIONS

The Aqueduct

The Pantheon. The First Dome (Use of Cement)

Click to See PowerPoints on Roman Art: http://iris.nyit.edu/arthistory/

Fall of Western Roman Empire:

1. Corruption
2. Political Assassinations
3. Too much territories to control
4. Provinces rebelling, refusing to pay taxes
5. Germanic attacks
6. Epidemics
7. Christianity challenged the old beliefs

ROMAN COSTUMES

 7-ANCIENT & MEDIEVAL INDIA, CHINA & JAPAN

Objectives

1-Give examples of the types of governments, societies, economies, and religions that developed among the river valley civilizations. (I A)

2-Discuss the role of geography in the development of the classical Indian and Chinese civilizations (I A)

3-Give examples of cultural diffusion throughout history (V A)

4-List the major cultural achievements of early civilizations (V C)

5-Identify the two major religions which developed in classical India (VI B)

6-Identify significant individuals and the effect that each had on Chinese religion (VI B).

7-Explain the rise and fall of the Mughal Empire in India (II C).

8-Trace the development of  dynastic cycles in Chinese civilization (II C).

9-Compare and contrast the feudal system in Europe and in Japan.

10-Describe the Mongol conquest of China.
 

VOCABULARY

1-MONSOON:

2-PASSES: See Himalayas

3-SILT:

4-CASTE SYSTEM:

5-REINCARNATION:

6-ARYANS: NOMADIC WARRIORS FORM THE NORTHWEST (PERSIA).

7-HINDUISM: ARYANS’ RELIGION (1500 BC)

8-BUDDHISM: NEW RELIGION IN INDIA (530 BC)

9-SANSKRIT: LANGUAGE OF HINDU DOCUMENTS AND BOOKS, LANGUAGE OF BRAHMANS.

10-MAJOR BOOKS OF HINDUISM: -VEDAS: BOOK OF KNOWLEDGE; -MAHABHARATA: EPIC POEMS AND MYTHS; -RAMAYANA EPIC POEM ON
RAMA = VISHNU

11-ANCESTOR:

12-CONFUCIANISM (500’s BC): GROUP OF MORAL AND POLITICAL IDEAS / PHILOSOPHY IN CHINA. (RESPECT, LOYALTY, OBEDIENCE, ORDER, AND RULE. FAMILY AND GOVERNMENT. “NEVER DO TO OTHERS WHAT YOU DON’T WANT THEM TO DO TO YOU”).

13-TAOISM - DAOISM (600’s BC): PHILOSOPHY IN CHINA: THE WAY TO A GOOD LIFE IS TO LIVE SIMPLY, WITH LIBERTY, AND CLOSE TO NATURE. NOT RULES OR GOVERNMENT. TAO= UNIVERSE, FOLLOW THE NATURAL INSTINCTS.

14-KARMA: MERITS / DEMERITS IN LIFE. THE REINCARNATION.

16-YOGA:

17-YIN-YANG: THE FORCES THAT RULE THE UNIVERSE ACCORDING TO THE TAOISM (FEMALE/MALE, DARK/LIGHT, WATER/FIRE, HOT/COLD )

18-MEDITATION:

19-NIRVANA: END OF ALL DESIRE. COMPLETE EMPTINESS. THE SOUL FINDS PERFECT PEACE.

20-STUPAS: LARGE BUILDINGS WHERE MONKS WERE BURIED IN INDIA (HINDUISM).

21-ABACUS: CALCULATOR .

22-MONGOLS: NOMAD WARRIORS FROM MONGOLIA. THEY CONQUERED CHINA, INDIA, MESOPOTAMIA, AND PART OF EASTERN EUROPE (1206 - 1405).

23-MOGHULS : MONGOLS CONQUERORS OF INDIA.

24-KAMI: SPIRITS

25-SHINTO: "THE WAY OF THE GODS".

26-BUSHIDO: CODE OF HONOR.

27-NIPPON: JAPAN.

28-DAIMYO: LAND OWNERS; HIGHEST NOBLES CLOSE TO THE SHOGUN.

29-HARAKIRI: SUICIDE TO CLEAN THE HONOR.

30-SAMURAI / NINJA: "ONE WHO SERVES". WARRIOR / SPY AND ASSASSIN. RONIN.

31-SHOGUN: "GREAT GENERAL". MILITARY AND POLITICAL DICTATOR.

LEADERS / PERSONALITIES

Siddharta Gautama, the Buddha

Confucius

Lao-Tze

Asoka : KING OF NORTHERN INDIA, FIRST TO CONVERT TO BUDDHISM AND SPREAD THE RELIGION FOR ASIA.

Shih Huang-ti: First Emperor of China (unification).

Kalidasa:  INDIAN WRITER. OLD FOLK STORIES, FAIRY TALES. He is regarded as the greatest figure in classical Sanskrit literature.

Kublai Khan: Mongol emperor, founder of the Yüan dynasty of China.

Timur, the Lame (TAMERLANE): MONGOL CONQUEROR of RUSSIA, PERSIA, and INDIA.

Akbar: Mughal emperor of India ; son of Humayun, grandson of Babur (founder of the Mughal empire of India. His full name was Zahir ud-Din Muhammad. A descendant of Timur ).

Shah Jehan: Mughal emperor of India. The Taj Mahal.

Marco Polo: SON OF A VENETIAN TRADER WHO TRAVELED THROUGH ASIA AND SPENT 24 YEARS IN CHINA. AFTER HIS RETURN TO EUROPE HE WROTE A BOOK ABOUT HIS ADVENTURES. MANY PEOPLE DID NOT BELIEVE HIM, OTHERS WERE CURIOUS FOR WHAT HE SAID (FUTURE EXPLORERS, THE DISCOVERY).

Asian Costumes

China                                                                    India                                                                    Japan

ANCIENT INDIA:  (2600-1900 BCE)

LIFE DEPENDS ON WATER FROM INDUS RIVER

Cities of Harappa & Mohenjo-Daro (larger). Twice a year river overflows (Snowmelt from mountains & seasonal winds: Monsoons): Two crops a year. Writing system not deciphered. Strong central authority. High & thick walls. Very well structured streets. Drainpipes to carry away waste. Place to store grain. More use of metal than in Mesopotamia & Egypt. Use of irrigation. Potter’s wheel & fired bricks. Widespread trading contacts. Natural disasters or ecological changes caused systems failure.

The Vedic Age  (1500-500 BCE)

Aryans: Nomadic light-skinned warriors, speaking Indo-European languages crossed the Khyber Pass and settled in northwest India, pushing south the Dasas, dark-skinned speakers of Dravidian languages. The Aryans depended mostly on herds of cattle. Lavish feasts & heavy drinking, chariot racing & gambling. Iron tools & plows pulled by oxen. Over time, a system of Varna  (classes): Brahmin (priests & scholars), Kshatriya (warriors & officials), Vaishya (landowners, merchants & artisans),  Shudras (peasants & laborers) (Shudra reserved for Dasas), and Untouchables. Jati or Castes: Subgroups within classes, based on occupation and duties. People in each jati, lived, married, ate, etc only w/ people of the same jati. Elaborate rules to regulate contacts between different jati. Varna & Jati connected to the idea of Reincarnation. Every living creature has an immortal essence, which after death is reborn in the body of an insect, animal or human, based on the Karma (deeds) = You are what you deserve to be!

Dominant Vedic Deities: Indra (Chief deity; god of war & rain), Varuna (universal order, morality and justice; god of forgiveness), and Agni (god of fire and sacrifice). Sanskit: language of the Arya upper class.

The Vedic religion evolved into Hinduism, which incorporated elements from Dravidian cultures. Devotion to a particular deity. Deities: Vishnu (the preserver), Shiva (creation and destruction), and Devi / Kali (the Goddess: fertility, procreation, and violence) related to cycle of life. Worship: Temples, Puja (caring for statue of deity), Pilgrimage to famous shrines, bathing in sacred waters of Ganges River.

Shiva                                                                      Ganesha                                                          Vishnu

Sanskrit Literature

The Vedas (1500-500 BCE):

They form the oldest layer of Sanskrit literature and the oldest sacred texts of Hinduism.

The Four Vedas: Rig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva. According to Hindu tradition, the Vedas are "not of human agency", being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are "what is heard". Vedic mantras are recited at Hindu prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions. Most Indologists agree that an oral tradition existed long before a literary tradition tentatively may have been set in. Apart from the religious rituals and philosophic doctrines, they also contain many hidden secret instructions in coded format for preparing various Vedic medicines.

 The Upanishads (600 BCE):

They are a collection of Indian philosophical treatises contributing to the theology of ancient Hinduism, elaborating on the earlier Vedas, on the nature of reality and the soul and the relations between these two (Vedanta). They often give the impression of an ongoing exploration of themes not yet fully resolved. They are the work of several hands. They do not belong to any particular period of Sanskrit literature: the oldest around 600 BCE, while the latest were composed in the medieval and early modern period.

The Sutra Literature (500-100 BCE):

Sūtra, literally means a rope or thread that holds things together, and more metaphorically refers to a large collection of aphorisms (truths, recommendations, rules), in the form of a manual. The texts were intended to be memorized by students in some of the formal methods of scriptural and scientific study.

Vedanga:  Shiksha (phonetics and phonology), Chandas (meter), Vyakarana (grammar), Nirukta (etymology), Jyotisha (astrology and astronomy), dealing particularly with the auspicious days for performing sacrifices, and Kalpa (ritual): Srauta Sutras (performance of sacrifices), Smarta Sutras, Grhya Sutras (covering domestic life), and Dharma Sutras.
Yoga Sutras: An enormously influential work on yoga philosophy and practice.
Nyāya Sūtras: An epistemological and metaphysical system. The ultimate purpose of the Nyaya Sutras is the attainment of salvation by knowledge.
Kama Sutra: The standard work on love in Sanskrit literature written by the Indian intellectual Vatsayana. A portion of the work deals with human sexual behavior.

The Epics (500-100 BCE)

The Ramayana and Mahabharata, also termed Itihāsa (History), are epic poems that form a canon of Hindu scripture.

With more than 74,000 verses, long prose passages, and about 1.8 million words in total, the Mahābhārata is one of the longest epic poems in the world. Hindus ascribe the authorship of the Mahābhārata to Vyasa (revered mythological figure in the majority of Hindu traditions). The innermost narrative of the Mahabharata tells the story of two sets of paternal first cousins who became bitter rivals, and opposed each other in war for possession of the ancestral Bharata kingdom with its capital in the "City of the Elephant," Hastinapura. What is dramatically interesting within this simple opposition is the large number of individual agendas the many characters pursue, and the numerous personal conflicts, ethical puzzles, subplots, and plot twists that give the story a strikingly powerful development. The most dramatic figure of the entire Mahabharata is Krishna, who was the supreme God Vishnu himself, descended to earth in human form to rescue Law, Good Deeds, Right, and Virtue. The Bhagavad Gita (the text is a conversation between Krishna and Arjuna taking place on the battlefield of Kurukshetra, just prior to the start of the Kurukshetra war) is part of the Mahabharata.

The Rāmāyaṇa is attributed to Valmiki (first poet in Hinduism). The Rāmāyaṇa consists of 24,000 verses in seven books, and 500 cantos and tells the story of Rāma, whose wife Sita is abducted by the demon (Rākshasa) king of Lanka, and Rama’s adventures to rescue her. Thematically, the epic explores themes of human existence and the concept of dharma.

Also see Kalidasa

                                                    Sanskrit

BUDDHISM

-PRINCE GAUTAMA SAT UNDER A GIANT TREE FOR 49 DAYS TO MEDITATE AND TRY TO UNDERSTAND THE MEANING OF LIFE.  AFTER THAT HE WAS KNOWN AS BUDDHA (THE ENLIGHTENED ONE).

-HE SPENT THE REST OF HIS LIFE TRAVELING FROM ONE VILLAGE TO ANOTHER, TEACHING, AND PREACHING THE "FOUR NOBLE TRUTHS" AND THE MIDDLE POINT.

After 700 BCE, challenge against power of Brahmin power: Jainism & Buddhism. Alternative paths to salvation, individual pursuit of insight into the nature of the self through physical and mental discipline (yoga), special dietary practices, and meditation.

Buddhism: Middle Path, Four Noble Truths, Eightfold Path, and the Wheel of the Law. Goal: Enlightment. Ultimate reward: Nirvana. Eventually, Hinduism prevailed over Buddhism in India, which was driven to Central, East, and Southeast Asia. Maybe too much austerity, denial of importance of gods, and high expectations for individuals were too hard for ordinary people.

The Four Noble Truths

1. Life means suffering.

2. The origin of suffering is attachment.

3. The cessation of suffering is attainable.

4. There is a path to the cessation of suffering: The Eightfold Path