Saint Vincent Father and Son

					Objective: In the Caribbean, a child’s biological father is often reported to be on the periphery of family life, with some studies reporting negative associates of father absence for children while other studies have found no associates or positive associates. This study examines the relationships between paternal residence and provisioning, and later academic and behavioral outcomes among Caribbean village children. Design: The sample is comprised of children between the ages of 5 and 12 living in a village in Saint Vincent, the West Indies, who participated in a longitudinal study from 1994 to 2001 (N = 120). The predictor variables, paternal residence and paternal material support, were assessed from life-history interviews with families covering infancy through late childhood (i.e., ages 0 to 2, 3 to 6, 7 to 9, 10 to 12 years). Outcome variables included measures of children’s academic performance and learning-related problems assessed by curriculum-based achievement testing and teachers’ scores. Control variables included household economic status, caregiver education, and aspects of the home psychosocial environments assessed using an adapted version of the HOME Inventory. Results: Multiple regression analyses indicated that after controlling for demographics, children from families where biological fathers were in residence the least and provided minimal support tended to have higher academic scores and fewer learning-related behavior problems. Conclusions: Results were contrary to expectations but were somewhat suggestive of earlier work finding positive relations between father absence and higher academic scores. It is posited that increased competition for maternal attention and negative effects of father discipline may hinder the development of abilities and skills necessary for academic achievement in Caribbean children.

					In developed countries, researchers who study competence in children have reported weak to moderate correlations among the three most commonly considered domains: academic performance, peer relations, and conduct. Associations among these domains have not been studied in children who live in villages in developing countries where developmental processes may differ from those observed in developed countries. To do so, we assessed 168 village children who were between the ages of 6 and 12, and lived on the East Caribbean island of St Vincent. We found that academic performance was mildly correlated with peer preference such that children with higher grades were more preferred as playmates. We also found that poor abstract reasoning and learning-related problems influenced academic performance, which in turn, led to low peer preference. One possible explanation is that academic and peer domains are correlated because of children’s awareness of classmates’ academic standing.

					In many Caribbean countries, secondary school positions are rationed to children who pass an examination they take at age 12. In St Vincent, children from villages are more likely to fail this examination, the CEE, than are urban children. Despite being a major determinant in children’s futures, little within-community research has been conducted on factors influencing children’s ability to pass this examination. We analysed longitudinal data from village children to identify accurate and early predictors of CEE passes. We included 66 children (35 boys, 31 girls). Academic scores and achievement test scores assessed academic performance. The Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices assessed abstract reasoning. A modified version of the Revised Behaviour Problem Checklist completed by teachers assessed behaviour problems. A modified  version of the HOME Inventory and other measures assessed home environment. Discriminant analyses indicated that children’s achievement, academic, behaviour problems, and cognitive abilities as early as age 8 can predict later examination success or failure. Of these variables, achievement and academic performance were the most significant contributors. Results suggest that children’s academic paths are established by at least age 8 (Grade 3) and that children diverge academically and cognitively over the primary school years. Interventions designed to reduce the rural/urban gap in secondary school admissions may be more effective if they started by age 8.

					Background. The few studies of children’s academic performance in developing countries have largely focused on effects of early risks and cognitive ability and usually neglected other factors such as attention and anxiety. Previously, we reported that scores on the Learning Behaviour Scale (LBS) and the Revised Behaviour Problem Checklist (RBPC) were correlated with academic scores and achievement test scores for village children in St Vincent, the West Indies. Aims. We examined the stability of LBS and RBPC scores and their ability to predict academic and achievement scores in the same population. Sample. Vincentian village children, ages 6-12, participated in the study; 65 participated in the one-year sample and 68 participated in the two-year sample. Method. Children completed a curriculum-based achievement test and the Raven Colored Progressive Matrices. Teachers completed the LBS and an adjusted RBPC and reported children’s academic scores in 1998 and 1999. Results. LBS scores were stable over one year and RBPC scores were stable over two years. LBS, RBPC, and Raven scores predicted achievement and academic scores. For both academic scores and achievement test scores, the greatest improvement in prediction came when the RBPC’s attention and anxiety subscales of the RBPC were added to regression models. Conclusions. Results provide additional support for the finding that Caribbean village children’s academic performance is greatly influenced by attention and anxiety problems not just their cognitive ability. Despite cultural differences, LBS and RBPC scores were as predictive of academic performance in this population than in American populations. The best way to improve academic performance for these children may be to reduce attention and anxiety problems.

					Saint Vincent Boy Taking the Raven Colored Progressive Matrices

					To explore mothers’ conceptions of child competence in three contexts of poverty, 58 mothers in a Filipino village, a Caribbean village, and an inner-city American homeless shelter described competent children in their communities. Interview responses addressed several questions. First, do mothers in these diverse settings share similar criteria in evaluating children? As expected, all three groups of mothers described competent children as well behaved and obedient, satisfactory students, helpful in the family, and friendly with peers. Second, are adolescents less likely than younger children to be identified spontaneously as examples of competence? In contrast to Filipino mothers, American shelter and Caribbean village mothers were unlikely to identify adolescent boys as competent. Lastly, what were mothers’ explanations for children’s competence? All mothers emphasized parenting as the most important factor in fostering competence, but differed on secondary factors. Results suggest that similarities may reflect shared concerns in adapting to poverty as well as shared salience in developmental tasks across these cultures. Differences in maternal conceptions may reflect demands and opportunities specific to each context.

					Research suggests learning-related behaviors, anxiety, and attention may influence academic performance. This research, however, has been limited to children from industrialized countries. Studies of children in developing countries have usually concentrated on children’s cognitive abilities and home background. Contributions of learning behaviors, anxiety, attention problems, cognitive ability, and home background to the academic performance of village children (N = 61; ages 6-12) on St Vincent, the West Indies, were investigated. Teachers provided academic scores and rated children using the Learning Behaviors Scale and using a modified version of the Revised Behavior Problem Checklist. Children’s cognitive ability was assessed using the Raven Colored Progressive Matrices and their academic skills were assessed using a locally standardized achievement test. Stimulating home experiences, caregiver involvement, affluence, and caregiver education were assessed using the MC-HOME Inventory and by interviews. Hierarchical regression indicated that anxiety, attention, and learning-related behaviors explain 32-35% of the variance in academic scores. In contrast, home background and cognitive ability account for only 11-14% and 6-22% respectively. Results suggest that academic performance may be improved in this population by reducing children’s anxiety levels and promoting appropriate learning behaviors.

						Interviewing mothers in Dominica

					The purpose of this chapter is to show how inquiry into criteria of child competence may help broaden the overlap between the two approaches. Concentrating on the emic aspects of child competence, I will discuss its etiology, function, and why it is of interest to psychologists as well as anthropologists. To illustrate research in child competence criteria, I present results from two field studies in the East Caribbean. I then discuss how emic-oriented research in child competence provides a basis for better integrating cultural and developmental processes, the theme of this Minnesota Symposium.