DEFINTIONS OF OLD GROWTH, PRISTINE, CLIMAX, ANCIENT FORESTS AND SIMILAR TERMS

DEFINITIONS OF OLD GROWTH, PRISTINE, CLIMAX, ANCIENT FORESTS, DEGRADATION, DESERTIFICATION, FOREST FRAGMENTATION, AND SIMILAR TERMS.
(DEFINITIONS OF FOREST STATE, STAGE, AND ORIGIN)

H. Gyde Lund

Forest Information Services

Email: gyde@comcast.net

Last updated: 31 December 2008

Abstract: Having a common understanding of what constitutes a "forest" and its derivatives (such as old growth, pristine, native, secondary forest, etc.) is fundamental for a discussion of assessment methods, ecosystem status, and sustainability. However, there is considerable variation nationally and globally in the definition and use of these terms. This paper lists the range of definitions and descriptors in use.

Keywords: Old-growth, Pristine, Climax, Ancient forest

Cite as: Lund, H. Gyde. 2008. Definitions of old growth, pristine, climax, ancient forests, degradation, desertification, forest fragmentation, and similar terms. [Online publication], Gainesville, VA: Forest Information Services. Misc. pagination. http://home.comcast.net/~gyde/pristine.htm

1. INTRODUCTION

In the past twenty years there has been an increased interest in the management and fate of our remaining forest lands. This has pitted industrial and environmental groups to work against each other instead of supporting one another. Part of the controversy is a lack of understanding or agreement on what is meant by various terms that describe the condition of a forest. This paper lists some of the general definitions currently in use derived from a literature search, the Internet and individual contributions. My thanks to all those who took the time to share their information and thoughts with me.

The following is a list of definitions I initiated at the request of Dr. Anatoly Shvidenko (IIASA) for the International Scientific Conference on The World's Natural Forests and Their Role in Global Processes. 15-20 August 1999. Khabarovsk, Russia. Sources include searches on the internet, literature review, and individual responses to a broad emailing to various forestry lists. First entries are generally from WWWebster and serve to put the subsequent forest definitions in perspective. My thanks to all that contributed. For definitions of "forests" see http://home.comcast.net/~gyde/DEFpaper.html and http://home.comcast.net/~gyde/pristine.htm

Ancient Forest:

1. Ancient: 1 : having had an existence of many years 2 : of or relating to a remote period, to a time early in history, or to those living in such a period or time; especially : of or relating to the historical period beginning with the earliest known civilizations and extending to the fall of the western Roman Empire in A.D. 476. 3 : having the qualities of age or long existence: (http://www.m-w.com/dictionary)

2. A forest that is typically older than 200 years with large trees, dense canopies and an abundance of diverse wildlife. http://www.nrdc.org/reference/glossary/a.asp

3. Ancient (& Ornamental) Woodlands - Unenclosed broad-leaved woodland. http://www.hants.gov.uk/newforest/bibliog.html

4. Ancient semi-natural woodland (ASNW) - those semi-natural stands on ancient woodland sites. The precise definition varies according to the local circumstances in each country within the United Kingdom and guidance should be sought from the Forestry Commission or Forest Service as appropriate. http://www.ukwas.org.uk/standard/certification_standard/glossary.html

5. Ancient wood (woodlands) - A classification for woodland which has been in continuous existence from before AD 1600 in England, Wales and N. Ireland and from before AD 1750 in Scotland. http://www.fsc-uk.demon.co.uk/Appendices.html, Forestry Commission (1998).

6. Ancient Woodland - A site which has been woodland continuously since at least 1600AD http://www.tnw.org.uk/Note17.html

7. Ancient Woodland - A woodland that has existed continuously since 1700, and possibly pre-history. http://www.dorsetcoppicegroup.co.uk/resources/Dorset_Coppice_Group_Glossary.pdf

8. Ancient woodland - Land which has been woodland since at least AD 1600. http://www.angelfire.com/on3/wildberks/Glossary.htm

9. Ancient Woodland - Woodland in Britain that originated before 1600 AD. Ancient woodland can also be secondary woodland http://www.wildlifetrust.org.uk/herts/reserves/glossary.html#Acid

10. ancient woodland - Woodland that has been in continuous existence since before AD 1600 in England, Wales and Northern Ireland or since before AD 1750 in Scotland. http://www.forestry.gov.uk/website/ForestStats2006.nsf/byunique/glossary.html, http://www.ukwas.org.uk/standard/certification_standard/glossary.html and http://www.wildlifetrust.org.uk/herts/reserves/glossary.html

11. Ancient Woodland. -Land that has had continuous woodland cover since at least 1600AD and may be: Ancient Semi-natural woodland - Ancient woodland sites that have retained the native tree and shrub cover that has not been planted, although it may have been managed by coppicing or felling and allowed to regenerate naturally. Ancient Replanted Woodland - Ancient woodland sites where the original native tree cover has been felled and replaced by planting, usually with conifers and usually this century. http://www.english-nature.org.uk/pubs/gis/tech_aw.htm

12. Ancient, Old-Growth & Native Forests: essentially interchangeable terms. They refer to forest areas that are relatively undisturbed by forest management, ranging in size from a few acres to thousands of square miles. These areas may be near, surrounded by, or adjacent to forest areas that have been heavily disturbed or altered by human management They have the following characteristics: largely naturally regenerated, less than 30% of the stand or forest area has been logged or cleared within the past century, relatively undisturbed such that human activities have not significantly altered native forest structure, composition or function, dominated by pre-European tree species, relatively unmanaged although they may suffer from a history of fire suppression or grazing, and composed of individual trees or stands of trees of different ages, with old- growth components constituting at least half of the stand or forest unit and having at least four trees per acre over 150 years of age. http://www.coopamerica.org/woodwise/business/wpledgeglossary.htm

13. Ancient/Old-Growth Forests refer to forest areas that are relatively undisturbed by human activity. Ancient forests vary significantly in age and structure from forest type toforest type and one bio-geo-climate zone to another. The following features generally characterize ancient forests: they have not undergone any significant industrial activity, they are naturally regenerated and dominated by a range of indigenous tree species, their tree size, age and spacing vary widely, their accumulations of dead standing trees (snags) and fallen trees are much more frequent than in younger forests, they contain trees that are large for the species and site combination, their overhead tree canopy has many openings, with multiple canopy layers that encourages a forest floor lush with ferns, berry bushes, mosses etc http://www.oldgrowthfree.com/policy.html

14. Forest areas that are relatively undisturbed by human activity…Ancient Forests are made up of frontier forests, primary forest fragments and old-growth forests. http://www.greenpeaceusa.org/forests/definitiontext.htm

15. Forests following the Ice Age. Bonnicksen (2000).

16. Land which has been woodland since at least AD 1600. http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/glossary/indexfr.htm The Woodland Trust Glossary

17. Old growth" forest areas that have never been timbered and therefore contain dominant mature trees, such as redwoods in California and Douglas fir in the Pacific Northwest. http://www.ecoweb.org/terms.htm#a EcoTerms Dictionary.

18. Old growth, natural or primary forests. http://archive.greenpeace.org/politics/wto/Doha/reports/wto.pdf

19. That which "grows on land which has been wooded continuously since at least 1600"; Peterken (1987). (WWF Report "The Status of Old-Growth and Semi-Natural Forests in Western Europe", May 1994). From: Alexander.Korotkov@unece.org. Date: Thu, 15 Oct 1998 17:09:40 +0200

Anthropogenic forest

1. Anthropogenic of, relating to, or resulting from the influence of human beings on nature <anthropogenic pollutants (http://www.m-w.com/dictionary)

2. Anthropogenic forests are natural tree dominated ecosystems have been impacted by humans with a frequency or intensity to change established seral patterns and natural biodiversity status. If left alone Anthropogenic Forests posses the capacity to mature into natural forest systems. Ranil Senanayake <100232.3435@CompuServe.COM

3. (Nicaragua) - Draft - Bosque Intervenido: Bosque Natural que ha sido sometido a intervención humana en los últimos veinticinco años. www.nicarao.org.ni/ja (see Borrador de la ley, CAPITULO II DEFINICIONES) Harrie <harnic@ibw.com.ni>

Antique Forest:

1. Antique: 1 : existing since or belonging to earlier times (http://www.m-w.com/dictionary)

2. Both primary and secondary woodland that originated prior to a particular date, which in Britain is often set at around 1600, as secondary woodland was rarely created by planting before then (Allaby 1994). Helene M Cleveland CCMAIL <hmclevel@aec.apgea.army.mil

3. The oldest of the old: forests that have been around long enough to accumulate, among other things, a rich assemblage of old-growth epiphytes. Such forests seem invariably to be more than 300 to 350 years old, and many, in many cases, have been in existence much longer than the most ancient trees within them. The last point is important. A 150-year-old tree in a 500-year-old forest may well support more old-growth indicators than a 250-year-old tree in a forest dating from a fire of equivalent vintage. (Goward 1994).

Artificial Forest:

Artificial - 1 : humanly contrived often on a natural model : MAN-MADE <an artificial limb <artificial diamonds (http://www.m-w.com/dictionary)

Climax Forest:

1. Climax: 3 : a relatively stable ecological stage or community especially of plants that is achieved through successful adjustment to an environment; especially : the final stage in ecological succession (http://www.m-w.com/dictionary)

2. A community that represents the culminating stage of a natural forest succession for its locality, i.e., its environment. (SAF 1977) and http://www.fw.vt.edu/zedaker/3364/ecolterms.html

3. A forest community that represents the final stage of natural forest succession for its environment. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/pab/publctns/GLOSSARY/C.htm

4. A forest that represents the final stage of natural forest succession for its locality, i.e. for its environment. Often identified as those forests that can reproduce indefinitely (i.e. in their own shade). http://www.pfpn.gc.ca/rep98/gloss_e.html and http://www.inac.gc.ca/building/forests/forest_j.html

5. A community that represents the culminating stage of a natural forest succession for its locality, i.e for its environment. http://www.eresourcesystems.com/Help/Glossary/glossary.html

6. A relatively stable forest community which is balanced within the existing environmental conditions. http://www.gn.apc.org/LivingEarth/RainforestDB/glossary.a-e.html#climax_forest

7. A secondary forest (cloud or rain), that is allowed to reclaim its flora and fauna mostly on its own, working with pollinators (wind, rain, birds, mammals, plants, etc. And after some 100 years becomes a climax forest, in reality it can not be called a primary forest again, since it has undergo changes in its habitat from the original status, new species are introduce(exotic) and old species prevail(endemic). http://www.geocities.com/RainForest/Canopy/5974/

8. Historic Climax Plant Community -- The plant community that was best adapted to the unique combination of factors associated with the ecological site. It was in a natural dynamic equilibrium with the historic biotic. abiotic, climatic factors on its ecological site in North America at the time of European immigration and settlement. http://nsscnt.nssc.nrcs.usda.gov/nfm/apxframe.htm

9. Plant community dominated by trees representing the culminating stage of natural succession for that specific locality and environment (17). http://rredc.nrel.gov/biomass/forest/tim_glossary/t_glossary.html#C

10. The final stage of plant succession in which species composition remains relatively stable. The climax forest for most of Mississippi would be the oak-hickory forest type. Pine is an intermediate species prior to the climax forest. http://ext.msstate.edu/pubs/pub1250.htm

Degradation –

1. (Animal resources) - Overstocking, malnutrition, animal diseases, loss of certain species, etc. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

2. (Bolivia) DEGRADACIÓN: Proceso que consiste la transformación de un sistema, orden, estructura o sustancia compleja, a un nivel inferior. así tenemos la degradación biológica, de los bosques. Source: Luis Castello faopaf@caoba.entelnet.bo Adjunto sírvase encontrar la versión no oficial y premilinar del Glosario Forestal elaborado por el Proyecto de Apoyo a la Coordinación e Implementación del Plan de Acción Forestal para Bolivia

3. (Bolivia) The forests experience a quick degradation, that consists the impoverishment of the forest areas or alteration of the forests original condition. This is a direct consequence of the wooden commercial use, which is usually direct impact on lose genetic diversity, and economic value of the forest with a the strongest genet erosion. , Source: Diego Pacheco, 1998. “Estilos de desarrollo, deforestación y degradación de los bosques en tierras bajas de Bolivia” plural@caoba.entelnet.bo La Paz - Bolivia

4. (Canada - BC) The diminution of biological productivity or diversity. [Source: Glossary of Forestry Terms, Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests, http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/pab/publctns/glossary/glossary.htm via Igor A. Yakovlev]

5. (Environmental) - A process of changing any element of the environment to the point that the ecosystem is thrown out of equilibrium. http://www.geocities.com/atlas/env/

6. (Environmental) - Exhaustion or destruction of a potentially renewable resource such as air, water, forest, or wildlife by consuming it at a rate faster than it is naturally renewed. If such use continues, the resource can become nonrenewable or nonexistent on a human time scale. Also see sustainable yield. http://www.geog.ouc.bc.ca/conted/onlinecourses/enviroglos/e.html

7. (Forest) - A secondary forest that has lost, through human activities, the structure, function, species composition or productivity normally associated with a natural forest type expected on that site. Hence, a degraded forest delivers a reduced supply of goods and services from the given site and maintains only limited biological diversity. Biological diversity of degraded forests includes many non-tree components, which may dominate in the under canopy vegetation. (Proposed definition). Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Forest Biological Diversity under CBD (UNEP/CBD/SBSTTA 2001) http://www.biodiv.org/programmes/areas/forest/definitions.asp

8. (Forest) - All biological, chemical and physical processes that result in loss of the productive potential of natural resources in areas that remain classified as forest (World Bank, 1991) http://www.gisdevelopment.net/aars/acrs/1995/ps2/ps2008.shtml

9. (Forest) - Biological, chemical or physical processes which result in the loss of the productive potential of natural resources in areas covered by forests and/or used by agriculture. Degradation may be permanent, although some forest areas may recover naturally or with human assistance. http://glossary.eea.eu.int/EEAGlossary/F/forest_degradation

10. (Forest) - Changes within the forest ecosystem which negatively affect the stand or site and, in particular, lower the production capacity of the stand (FAO, 1993). http://216.239.39.104/search?q=cache:qOqeUxO6AdkJ:www.uz.ac.zw/ies/afsa/report9a.doc+%22Forest+degradation+is%22&hl=en&ie=UTF-8

11. (Forest) - Changes within the forest which negatively affect the structure or function of the stand and site, and thereby lower the capacity to supply products and/or services (FAO)". . http://www.biodiv.org/doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/information/cop-06-inf-26-en.pdf

12. (Forest) - Logging or any form of removal of 90 percent of the trees leaving only 10 percent of the tree crown cover …would be considered degradation if it results in damage to the land. http://www.spcforests.org/Library/usestatus/usestatus.htm

13. (Forest) - May be generally defined as a reduction in tree density and/or increased disturbance to the forest that results in the loss of forest products and forest-derived ecological services. http://216.239.37.100/search?q=cache:A5q0D_lXFJgC:www.wri.org/wri/pdf/indoforest_glossary.pdf+crown+cover+FAO+definition&hl=en&ie=UTF-8

14. (Forest) - The deterioration of plant species composition and biological functions without necessarily involving a change in land use. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

15. (Forest) - The deterioration of the health, quality and productive capacity of a forest. http://www.peopleandplanet.net/section.php?section=1&topic=8&PHPSESSID=1a9faae006a4efebfebe57431f0ca5ac

16. (Forest) - The ecologically deleterious depletion by human activity of standing woody biomass and organic matter in forests, often associated with over-utilization of the forest for fuel or timber. http://www.usask.ca/agriculture/caedac/dbases/glossary.htm

17. (IPCC) Degraded forests or grasslands - Forests or grasslands that are have been overused or poorly managed and are likely to have reduced biomass densities. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gl/guidelin/ch5ref1.pdf

18. (UN-FCCC-IPCC) Forest Degradation -A direct human-induced long-term loss (persisting for X years or more) of at least Y% of forest carbon stocks [and forest values] since time T and not qualifying as deforestation or an elected activity under Article 3.4 of the Kyoto Protocol. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gpglulucf/gpglulucf_files/Task2/Degradation.pdf

19. (Land) - A decrease in the production potential of the land. http://www.earth.nasa.gov/nra/current/nra99oes06/apendixg.html

20. (Land) - A permanent loss of ecosystem function, caused by disturbance from which the system cannot recover unaided.

21. (Land) - Decline in the potential of the land resources to meet human economic, social and environmental functions needs. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

22. (Land) - Land (soil, water and natural vegetation) degradation refers to undesirable changes in plant composition and soil and land surface characteristics. http://www.affa.gov.au/corporate_docs/publications/pdf/oper_env/armcanz/armcanz-may28.pdf

23. (Land) – Productive land that is rendered unproductive by human activity such as urban use http://www.ocdsb.edu.on.ca/WOODSweb/geomatics/English/glossary.html

24. (Land) - The decline in condition or quality of the land as a consequence of misuse or overuse, involving changes to soil, flora, fauna, water quality and quantity, visual quality and production levels by humans http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe/95/28.htm

25. (Land) - The decline in the quality of the natural resources of the land resulting from human activities. http://www.soil.pir.sa.gov.au/html/mar_rep_a5.htm

26. (Land) - The loss of the productive capacity of the land to sustain life. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

27. (Land) -The "reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rainfed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation" (Convention to Combat Desertification) and http://www.forestry.ac.cn/din/book1/xu.htm

28. (Morocco and Yemen) Degradation (Arabic : Takhreeb, French : Degradation, Spanish : Degradacion) - Here, there is not only a deforestation, but an agreession on the forest as ecosystem, leading to a negative change in all its biotoipe(fauna, flora, soil, micro/meso climate). The productivity of the whole ecosystem is lower. Degradation could lead to erosion, drought, desertification and other calamities. Mohammed Ellatifi, m.ellatifi@ellatifi.8m.com

29. (Plant resources) - Reduced biodiversity, reduced biomass and nutritive value, reduced plant cover and growth, plant diseases. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

30. (Rangeland) has occurred only where there has been an effectively irreversible decline in the rate of output of livestock products from the range under a specified system of management. http://conference.ifas.ufl.edu/ifsa/posters/Mulale.doc

31. (Semi-natural forest) - A subset of semi-natural forests with some of the principle characteristics and key components of native ecosystems; a return to a semi-natural forest is unlikely to occur in a reasonable amount of time (i.e., decades) without human intervention. http://www.fscus.org/html/about_fsc/who_we_are/glossary_of_terms.html#d

32. (Slovenia) Forest in which the growth rate, or the fertility of forest land, is reduced, or other possibilities for it to perform its function as a forest are reduced by negative outside influences. [From: Slovenian LAW ON FORESTS - Milan SINKO milan.sinko@UNI-LJ.SI via "Maksym Polyakov" <mpoliak@pcomp.usau.kiev.ua Date: Fri, 12 Jun 1998 16:11:17 +0300 (MSD)]

33. (Soil) – The loss of the capacity of the soil to produce vegetation as a result of soil erosion, nutrient depletion, salinization and alkalinity, soil pollution by pesticides, nutrients, acid rain, compaction and crust formation. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

34. (UN-FAO 2000) Forest degradation is a reduction of the canopy cover or stocking within the forest. Explanatory note: For the purpose of having a harmonized set of forest and forest change definitions, that also is measurable with conventional techniques, forest degradation is assumed to be indicated by the reduction of canopy cover and/or stocking of the forest through logging, fire, windfelling or other events, provided that the canopy cover stays above 10% (cf. definition of forest). In a more general sense, forest degradation is the long-term reduction of the overall potential supply of benefits from the forest, which includes wood, biodiversity and any other product or service. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO 2000b)

35. (UN-FAO) Changes within the forest class, for example, from closed to open forest, which negatively affect the stand or site and, in particular, lower the production capacity. These lands are considered apart from deforestation. (FAO 1997).

36. (Vegetation) - A reduction in the available biomass, and decline in the vegetative ground cover, as a result of deforestation and overgrazing. http://www.fao.org/landandwater/swlwpnr/reports/v_a/atx512.htm

37. (Vegetation) - The deterioration of the healthy conditions of the vegetation, expressed through changes in its composition, structure and function (Kakembo 2001;TCM 1998). http://www.itc.nl/library/Papers/msc_2002/nrm/barreiros_horta.pdf

38. (Water resources) - Depletion of groundwater resources, decline in water quality, sedimentation of reservoirs, increased runoff and flash floods, flooding. http://anmf.web1000.com/BIBLIOGRAPHY%20ON%20AFRICA%20MOUNTAINS.html

39. Any decline in the quality of natural resources commonly caused by human activities http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe/95/28.htm

40. A reduction in form, capacity, potential, or value, such as the breakdown of organic matter by decomposition, the erosion of continents, the lowering of energy available to do work, or the lowering of potential of resource sustainability. http://www.nativehabitat.org/definitions.html

41. Biological, chemical or physical processes which result in the loss of the productive potential of natural resources in areas covered by forests and/or used by agriculture. Degradation may be permanent, although some forest areas may recover naturally or with human assistance http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg08/forests/en/en4_6.htm and http://www.wrm.org.uy/actors/WB/1991policy3.html

42. Change of forest class (from closed to open forest) which negatively affects the stand or site and lowers production capacity. Degradation is not reflected in the estimates of deforestation http://europa.eu.int/comm/dg08/forests/en/en4_6.htm

43. Changes within the forest class which negatively affect the stand or site and, in particular, lower the production capacity. Thus degradation is not reflected in the estimates of deforestation. [Source: from http://faov02.fao.org:70/0gopher_root%3a[fao.fra]def_uk.txt (concepts, definitions and methodology of the FAO Forest Resources Assessment 1990) via Bernhard Schlamadinger]

44. Degradation - Reduction in value or quality. http://www.icbemp.gov/pdfs/deis/eastside/volume1/glossary.pdf

45. Degradation (Forest or grassland) FAO, UNEP - Refer to changes in the quality of forest cover which are an inevitable consequence of most forms of cultural forest modification, and only lead to deforestation in the most extreme cases. http://www.geog.leeds.ac.uk/projects/openfor/main.html

46. Degradation (Forest) (USFS) - A loss of a desired level of maintenance over time of biological diversity, biotic integrity and ecological processes. http://www.alric.org/research/unasylva/pdf/202_05.pdf

47. Degradation of natural resources – The result of the cumulative activities of farmers, households, and industries, all trying to improve their socio-economic well being. http://oaspub.epa.gov/trs/trs_proc_qry.alphabet?p_term_nm=D

48. Degradation of the environment- The process by which the environment is progressively contaminated, overexploited and destroyed.(Source: RRDA) http://oaspub.epa.gov/trs/trs_proc_qry.alphabet?p_term_nm=D

49. Degradation usually implies a loss of productivity. Operations such as thinning and salvage logging, while reducing the canopy cover, may not reduce the productivity of the land. In fact it may increase it. Thus over story reduction alone may not be regarded as degraded forest.

50. Degradation - General lowering of the earth’s surface by erosion or moving of materials from one place to another. http://www.icbemp.gov/pdfs/deis/eastside/volume1/glossary.pdf

51. Degraded forest - A state which delivers a reduced supply of goods and services from the given site and maintains only limited biological diversity (CBD). http://www.biodiv.org/doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/information/cop-06-inf-26-en.pdf

52. Degraded forest - ITTO (in preparation) applies the state concept to degradation referring to all those forests or forest lands that have been altered beyond the normal effects of natural processes through human activities or natural disasters, such as fire, landslides, etc. http://www.biodiv.org/doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/information/cop-06-inf-26-en.pdf

53. Degraded: characterized by degeneration of structure or function. (http://www.m-w.com/dictionary)

54. Diminished Forest Land (74) - area and percent of forest land with diminished biological components indicative of changes in fundamental ecological processes (e.g. soil, nutrient cycling, seed dispersion, pollination) http://www.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/SDI_Org_USDA.html

55. Processes or activities that weaken an ecosystem, adversely affecting biological diversity. http://www.nature.nps.gov/nrbib/HTML%20files/32.htm#3152

56. Temporary or permanent reduction in the density, structure, species composition or productivity of vegetation cover (Grainger 1996)

57. The act or process of degrading (lowering to an inferior level) [Source: WWWebster Dictionary].

58. The degradation or impoverishment of forests, measured in terms of loss of biodiversity (which includes genetic, species and ecosystem diversity) and economic, cultural and ecological utility and stability, resulting from the selective removal of trees or other forest plant and animal species or the degradation of forest environments, through processes such as destructive logging, burning, or invasion of disturbed habitats by weedy or less useful exotic species. http://www.spcforests.org/Library/usestatus/usestatus.htm

59. The ecologically deleterious depletion by human activity of standing woody biomass and organic matter in forests, often associated with over-utilization of the forest for fuel or timber. http://www.climateservices.com/glossary.htm and http://www.teleport.com/~taa/glossary.htm

60. The process of degeneration. http://www.gn.apc.org/LivingEarth/RainforestDB/glossary.a-e.html#climax_forest

61. To wear down, reduce to lower quality, by erosion or reduce the complexity of a chemical compound. http://www.epa.gov/grtlakes/seahome/housewaste/src/glossary1.htm#degradation

62. Degradation usually implies a loss of productivity. Operations such as thinning and salvage logging, while reducing the canopy cover, may not reduce the productivity of the land. In fact it may increase it. Thus over story reduction alone may not be regarded as degraded forest.

63. (USA-FED- CIA) Soil degradation - damage to the land's productive capacity because of poor agricultural practices such as the excessive use of pesticides or fertilizers, soil compaction from heavy equipment, or erosion of topsoil, eventually resulting in reduced ability to produce agricultural products. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/docs/notesanddefs.html#2032

Desertification

1. (IPCC) Desertification - Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. Further, the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) defines land degradation as a reduction or loss, in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas, of the biological or economic productivity and complexity of rain-fed cropland, irrigated cropland, or range, pasture, forest, and woodlands resulting from land uses or from a process or combination of processes, including processes arising from human activities and habitation patterns, such as: (i) soil erosion caused by wind and/or water; (ii) deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological or economic properties of soil; and (iii) long-term loss of natural vegetation. (Source: Second Order Draft Glossary IPCC WGI Fourth Assessment Report http://www.junkscience.com/draft_AR4/GLOSSARY_SOD_TSU_FINAL.pdf )

2. (UN-CCD) Land degradation occurring in arid, semi-arid, dry subhumid areas where the ratio of the annual precipitation to the evapotranspiration falls within the range of 0.005 to 0.65. http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/asia/national/2002/malaysia-eng.pdf.

3. (UN-EP) Land degradation in arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid areas resulting mainly from adverse human impact. (UNEP 1992) http://www.evsc.virginia.edu/~desert/desert/desert.html, http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~arid/desert/desert.html and www.ciesin.columbia.edu/docs/002-186/002-186.html

4. (UN-EP) The diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, and can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions. It is an aspect of the widespread deterioration of ecosystems, and has diminished or destroyed the biological potential, i.e. plant and animal production, for multiple use purposes at a time when increased productivity is needed to support growing populations in quest of development. (UNEP, 1978) http://www.evsc.virginia.edu/~desert/desert/desert.html

5. (UN-EP) The diminution or destruction of the biological potential of the land, (which) can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions. UN Secretariat 1977

6. A fertile region that has been made barren by the activities of human societies http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/frank.elwell/Prob3/glossary/gloss1.htm#DECARCERATION

7. A process by which fragile, semiarid ecosystems lose productivity because of loss of plant cover, soil erosion, salinization, or waterlogging. Usually associated with human misuse.http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/glossary/glossaryd.mhtml

8. A process of land becoming more desertlike as a result of human-induced devegetation and related soil deterioration, sometimes aggravated by drought. http://www.wiley.com/college/geog/cutter018104/resources/Chapter06/gloss06.htm

9. A process of land degradation initiated by human activity, particularly in the zones along the margins of deserts http://www.ge-at.iastate.edu/courses/Geol_100/glossary.v2.html

10. A process whereby the productivity of drought-prone land decreases because of factors including deforestation, over-cultivation, drought, over-grazing (poor rangeland management), poor irrigation (waterlogging and salinization), soil erosion, chemical action and other practices (86G1). http://www.alltel.net/~bsundquist1/og6.html#BM6C

11. Conversion of rangeland, rain-fed cropland to desert-like land, with a drop in agricultural productivity of 10% or more. It is usually caused by a combination of overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought, and climate change.http://ecology.org/biod/library/glos_index.html and http://www.gsu.edu/~mstnrhx/ecogloss.htm

12. Dry land becoming desert, either through a change in climate or through the actions of humans. Intensive farming and clearing trees and other vegetation can make desertification worse.http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/glossary.htm

13. Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities.www.asia-tpn1.net/glossary.html and http://www.nyo.unep.org/action/ap1.htm

14. Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting mainly from adverse human impact (and climatic variations), and is therefore a sub-set of land degradation in countries that have additional climate zones. http://www.adb.org/projects/PRC_GEF_Partnership/LD_definition.pdf

15. Land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting from various factors, including climatic variation and human activities. ?

16. Land degradation occurring in the arid, semiarid and dry subhumid areas of the world. These susceptible drylands cover 40 percent of the earth's surface and puts at risk more than 1 billion people who are dependent on these lands for survival.http://www.nrcs.usda.gov/technical/worldsoils/landdeg/degredation.html

17. Progressive destruction or degradation of existing vegetative cover to form desert. This can occur due to overgrazing, deforestation, drought, and the burning of extensive areas.http://www.hwwa.de/Projekte/Forsch_Schwerpunkte/FS/Klimapolitik/PDFDokumente/Michaelowa,%20Koch%20(2001).pdf

18. The (usually) slow and progressive degradation of land towards a desert state. http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/aboutus/annualreport/sect5.pdf

19. The conversion of ecosystems into barren land http://www.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/ISS_SDI_Climate.html

20. The creation of desert-like conditions in semi-arid areas, either by changes in the climatic pattern, or by human mismanagement. http://greenplanet.eolss.net/EolssLogn/searchdt.asp?cmd=getdoc&maxSize=200000&DocId=87&Index=D%3a\Program%20Files\dtSearch%20Developer\UserData\C19&HitCount=2&hits=4cc+4cd+&hc=4&req=forest%2Bdegradation

21. The degradation of terrestrial ecosystems as a result of deforestation, overgrazing, poor soil, and irrigation management. http://www.orst.edu/Dept/owrri/directory/glossary.htm#~D~

22. The diminution or destruction of the biological potential of land, and can lead ultimately to desert-like conditions (definition of UNCOD) (85D1) (Dregne's definition is given on p.19 of 85D1) http://www.alltel.net/~bsundquist1/og6.html#BM6C http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~arid/desert/desert.html

23. The extension of the desert into another ecological system such as into tropical grasslands. http://www.kgv.edu.hk/eden/glossary.php

24. The land degradation in arid and semi-arid areas, caused by climatic changes and human impact. United Nations Environment and Development Conference, Rio de Janeiro in 1992 (Görcelio?lu, 1992). In this definition it was emphasised that, desertification was not the only the problem of arid zones but also semi-arid zones. http://www.toprak.org.tr/isd/isd_53.htm

25. The man-made or natural formation of desert from usable land. http://www.casde.unl.edu/vn/glossary/earth_d.htm#desertification and http://asd-www.larc.nasa.gov/asd_over/glossary/d.html and http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov:81/Library/glossary.php3?mode=alpha&seg=d

26. The process by which an area or region becomes more and through loss of soil and vegetative cover. The process is often accelerated by excessive continuous overstocking and drought. http://www.roseworthy.adelaide.edu.au/~icooper/glossary/d.htm

27. The process by which lands not formerly deserts become deserts, because of changes in temperature and rainfallhttp://www.solutions-site.org/reference/glossary.htm

28. The process by which once productive land is turned into a desert by processes such as overstocking or removal of protective vegetation.http://www.epa.nsw.gov.au/soe/95/28.htm

29. The process caused by continuous overuse of the land resulting in interrupted ecological systems and causing desert like conditions in areas that do not have desert climates. http://www.cnr.uidaho.edu/range456/hot-topics/range-terms.htm

30. The process of a non-desert ecosystem taking on the characteristics of a desert (arid, seemingly barren) as a result of land mismanagement or climate change.http://www.pbs.org/earthonedge/glossary.html

31. The process of becoming arid land or desert (as from land mismanagement or climate change).http://sol.crest.org/renewables/SJ/glossary/D.html

32. The process of becoming desert either from inappropriate land management or climate change; http://www.africanculturalcenter.org/10_0glossary.html#E

33. The process of desert spread. http://www.learn.co.uk/default.asp?WCI=Unit&WCU=7568

34. The process of impoverishment and deterioration of terrestrial ecosystems under the impact of man that can be measured by reduced productivity of desirable plants, undesirable alterations in biomass and diversity of micro- and macro-fauna and flora, accelerated soil erosion, and increased hazards for human occupancy (78D1) http://www.alltel.net/~bsundquist1/og6.html#BM6C

35. The process of land degradation which leads to a drastic reduction of land productivity. Land is rendered unsuitable for any productive activity. It is prevalent in arid and semi-arid areas. Its causes are both natural (dry climate, low rainfall, water shortage) as well as anthropogenic (overgrazing, deforestation, fires, intensive cultivation).http://www.rri.wvu.edu/WebBook/Briassoulis/glossaryterms.htm

36. The process of removal of the soil from a region so that precipitation quickly evaporates or runs into underground aquifers, giving the region the appearance and characteristics of a desert, even though precipitation levels would suggest a non-desert; the creation of a "well-rained-upon desert".~ Comments:~ This term became common with the 9/77 Conference on Desertification in Nairobi, Kenya. http://www.alltel.net/~bsundquist1/og6.html#BM6C

37. The process through which a desert takes over a formerly non-desert area. When a region begins to undergo desertification, the new conditions typically include a significantly lowered water table, a reduced supply of surface water, increased salinity in natural waters and soils, progressive destruction of native vegetation, and an accelerated rate of erosion.http://www.iversonsoftware.com/geology/d/desertification.htm

38. The process through which once usable land is turned into desert because of overgrazing, harmful agricultural practices, or deforestation http://cwabacon.pearsoned.com/bookbind/pubbooks/social_ab/chapter4/custom1/deluxe-content.html#desertification

39. The progressive destruction or degradation of existing vegetative cover to form desert. http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/glossary.htm#d andhttp://www.ciel.org/Publications/climatechangeglossary.pdf

40. The progressive destruction or degradation of existing vegetative cover to form desert. This can occur due to overgrazing, deforestation, drought and the burning of extensive areas. Once formed, desert can only support a sparse range of vegetation. Climatic effects associated with this phenomenon include increased albedo, reduced atmospheric humidity and greater atmospheric dust loading, which can cause wind erosion and/or atmospheric pollution.http://www.ccasia.teri.res.in/gloss/glossary.htm

41. The reduction or spatial reorganization of net primary production in arid and semi-arid lands. http://www.evsc.virginia.edu/~desert/desert/desert.html

42. The spread of deserts. http://mac01.eps.pitt.edu/harbbook/other/Glossary.html

43. The spread or encroachment of a desert environment into arid or semiarid regions, caused by climatic changes, human influence, or both. http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?eu=30548&tocid=0

44. The transformation of nondesert ecosystems to desert-like conditions with less vegetation, less organic matter in the soil, more rapid drying of the soil, and more wind and water erosion. Desertification typically is caused by overgrazing and improper crop culture. http://www.nativehabitat.org/definitions.html

45. The transformation of once-productive arid and semi-arid areas into deserts through prolonged drought or continued mismanagement of land and water resources.http://www.nrcan.gc.ca/cfs-scf/science/prodserv/glossary_e.html#23 and http://www.fnfp.gc.ca/rep99/gloss-e.htm

46. When an area begins to develop desert-like conditions due to lack of water, deforestation, overgrazing and over cropping. http://www.dnr.state.sc.us/climate/sercc/education/glossary/#d

Diminished Forest Land

Area and percent of forest land with diminished biological components indicative of changes in fundamental ecological processes (e.g. soil, nutrient cycling, seed dispersion, pollination) http://www.hq.nasa.gov/iwgsdi/SDI_Org_USDA.html

Disturbed Forest