Carlowitz was born in Saxony to Georg v. Carlowitz, a courthouse officer, and his spouse Ida von Könneritz. After his Abitur, Adolph studied law at Leipzig University, but after a couple years opted for a military career with the Saxon Infantry, having already previously served as a one-year volunteer with the 8th Infantry Regiment in Leipzig.

Von Carlowitz' military career saw him serving in several general staff positions within the Saxon Army at the divion and corps level. He also served for a few years with the Prussian Great General Staff in Berlin. He eventually replaced von Hausen as Saxony's Minister of War in May 1914, just prior to the outbreak of World War One. This position was actually intended for leading field army in case of hostilities, but Carlowitz was instead called to head up the newly formed XXVII. (sächsisch-württembergische) Reservekorps. After recovering from a heart ailment in October 1914, he returned to the field but only as commander of an infantry division. He was transferred to the Eastern Front in the summer of 1915 as commander of the III. Reservekorps which played an important role during the Russian's Spring Offensive of 1916. In the summer of 1917, von Carlowitz replaced the deceased Max v. Laffert as commanding general of the XIX. Armeekorps back on the Western Front. This corps was known as "Gruppe Aubers" during the successful offensive at Armentieres in April 1918, for which von Carlowitz received the Pour le Merite. 

During the last few months of the war, von Carlowitz commanded the Ninth Army, responsible for defensive operations between Oise and Aisne. He thereafter took command of the Second Army which battled Rawlinson's Fourth Army near Cambrai and St Quentin. After the War ended, he retired from the army on 14 January 1919 and spent his last remaining years with his wife at Gersdorf near Döbeln. He was married to Priska von Stieglitz, and they had one son and three daughters. Von Carlowitz died at Gersdorf on 9 July 1922 and is buried at the military cemetary in Dresden-Alberstadt. His son Adolf became a doctor, and one of his daughters, Ruth, married Ferdinand FH von Fürstenberg.