KAREN A.
WOODROW-LAFIELD, Ph.D., Principal Investigator
MODELS OF THE
OCCURRENCE AND TIMING OF NATURALIZATION
National Institute of
Child Health and Human Development, R01 HD 37279
Web Page: http://home.comcast.net/~karenwoodrowlafield
Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Principal Investigator, conducted
this project while she was an Associate Professor in Sociology and Research
Fellow, Social Science Research Center, at Mississippi State University
(1999-2002) and Director, Border and Inter-American Affairs, holding a two-year
appointment as Visiting Faculty Fellow, Institute for Latino Studies, at the
University of Notre Dame (2002-2004). For
further information and inquiries about continuation of this project, contact
her at 202-276-2818 or by email, KarenWLafield@cs.com or WoodrowLafield@cs.com
.
Selected Abstracts
- “Pathways to U.S. Citizenship,” Karen A.
Woodrow-Lafield, Museums & Social Issues 3(2, Fall):
235-244. The U.S.
foreign-born population includes more noncitizens than naturalized
citizens, a reversal of the 1930-1980 trend of high-naturalized
citizenship, especially among European-born persons. As the policy debate continues about
border enforcement and an unauthorized presence, naturalization and
pathways to U.S.
citizenship are more prominent.
This article reviews the steps in making the transition to
naturalized citizen and eligibility criteria. The article also discusses naturalization
as a temporal process of civic assimilation. Museums can play important roles in
promoting understanding of immigrant pathways to naturalized citizenship
with viewpoints on origin groups, institutions, and communities.
- “Migration,
Immigration, and Naturalization in America,“ Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield,
Pp. 60-79 in From Arrival to
Incorporation: Migrants to the U.S. in a Global Era, Elliott Barkan,
Hasia R. Diner, and Alan Kraut (eds.), New York University Press. Scholars and others are fascinated with
migration and immigration this decade when the U.S. foreign-born population
is nearly as large as the Hispanic (or Latino) population or the Black or
African American population. In the
past two censuses, the number of noncitizens was greater than the number
of naturalized citizens, in contrast with the trend
between 1930
and 1980 when the European-born accounted for the majority of the
foreign-born before recent immigration from Asia and Latin
America.
Naturalization or naturalizing is relatively little noted in the
social science literature and governmental policies have been directed
more to border enforcement and immigration benefits than to
naturalization. This article
focuses on new perspectives for understanding temporal processes of
naturalizing and recognizing the influences of social capital and human
capital.
- “Interstate
Migration and the Transition to Citizen,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield,
Presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, New Orleans, April
19. For adult immigrants of
1978-1991 who became U.S.
citizens, the majority was living in the states of initial residence, but
about one-fifth had moved to another state. From logistic regression analyses, the
likelihood of making an interstate migration varies by visa class of
admission, manner of entry, initial residence, and place of origin. Men with employment-sponsored visas were
more likely to have experienced an interstate migration, and this may have
resulted from greater human capital allowing choice in economic
opportunities and amenities, including availability of ethnics as
peers. Immigrants initially
settling in Florida or California seemed less likely to have
left these states. Further
investigation is needed to explore the feasibility of this approach for
supplementing existing sources on internal migration.
- “New
Citizens and Internal Migration,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield. Presented at the 2006 annual meeting of
the Population Association of America, Los Angeles, March 29-April 1. This analysis explores internal
migration in the period between admission as lawful permanent resident and
naturalization. Internal migration
of foreign-born residents is more important to consider because the
foreign-born population is more dispersed to communities not traditionally
receiving immigrants. For adult
immigrants of 1978-1991 who became U.S. citizens, the majority
was living in the states of initial residence, but 22 percent had moved to
another state. From logistic
regression analyses, the likelihood of making this type of interstate
migration varies by visa class of admission, manner of entry, initial
residence, and place of origin. Men are more likely to have made this move
than women, and this approach may be more revealing for their
experiences. Further investigation
is needed to explore the feasibility of this approach for supplementing
existing sources on internal migration.
- “Family
Reunification and Citizenship for Recent Chinese Immigrants, New York City,”
Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield and Bunnak Poch.
Presented at the 2006 annual meeting of the Population Association
of America, Los Angeles,
March 29-April 1. This study
examines the timing of naturalization for Chinese immigrants settling in New York City. Immigration helped sustain New York City
population levels in the 1990s.
Chinese immigrants naturalize more quickly than other major groups,
and they sponsor many family members under immediate relative
provisions. Based on
continuous-time hazard models over duration controlling for unobserved
heterogeneity, immediate relatives of U.S. citizens and employment
immigrants were naturalizing more quickly than immigrants under family
preference categories since the mid 1980s.
For most cohorts, immigrants reporting professional, managerial,
technical sales, or administrative occupations showed propensity to
naturalize more quickly than others.
The gender effect was inconsistent, although women of recent
cohorts were naturalizing more quickly, perhaps due to changing gender
roles.
- “Naturalization
of U.S.
Immigrants Before Reforms in the 1990s,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe
Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak Poch.
Presented at the 2005 annual meeting of the Population Association
of America, Philadelphia,
March 30-April 2. The influences of
gender, origin, and admission criteria are examined in the timing of
naturalization for all lawfully admitted adult immigrants of
1978-1991. Individuals entering as
spouses may especially seek to naturalize to give visa opportunities to
their family members living abroad.
Prior research suggests origin differences in completed
naturalization levels for foreign-born persons in the census, controlling
for duration of residence. Cox
regression models are discussed, including sex-specific models with dummy
variables for region of origin.
Asian origin immigrants show the greatest naturalization propensity
and Latin American immigrants show the least naturalization
propensity. Immigrants were more
likely to naturalize if they were admitted in categories suggesting lower
social capital or higher human capital, such as employment-sponsored
categories, spouses of aliens, and spouses of citizens.
- “Pathways
to U.S. Citizenship for Child Immigrants” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield,
Presented at the annual meeting of the Population Association of America, Philadelphia, March
30-April 2, 2005. This study
investigates independent naturalization of child immigrants. For child
immigrants adopted, parental nativity status conveys citizenship. For
child immigrants accompanying or joining parent immigrants, parental
naturalizing conveys citizenship to minors. Naturalizing parents need to
request citizenship certificates, or an adult son or daughter may later
request a U.S.
passport through the State Department based on derivative status. This
study focuses on naturalizing as adults by child immigrants whose parents
had not naturalized during their childhood. Younger immigrants would be
more likely to derive citizenship and less likely to naturalize as adults.
Older immigrants would be more likely to naturalize as independent adults,
because their parents had not naturalized while they were minors. This
approach adds understanding of naturalization outcomes for recent child
immigrants reaching adulthood, and future research should incorporate
statistical controls to compensate for the unobserved outcome of
derivative citizenship. The Child Citizenship Act of 2000, effective
February 27, 2001, is likely to simplify the transition to citizenship for
child immigrants.
- “Child
Immigrants as Citizens,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield (2004), Presented in
topic contributed session on record linkage, Organized by Professor
Michael Larsen, Iowa State University, Joint Statistical Meetings,
American Statistical Association, Toronto, August 8-12, 2004. 2004 Proceedings of the American
Statistical Association, Section on Government Statistics [CD-ROM], Alexandria, VA:
American Statistical Association: 4603-4608.This study investigates
naturalization among child immigrants.
Parents’ actions in naturalizing simultaneously convey U.S.
citizenship to minor children, and parents need only request certificates
of citizenship. U.S. born
parents may similarly convey citizenship to adopted children. Adult sons and daughters of naturalized
parents may later request a U.S. passport on the basis of
derivative citizenship status through the Department of State. Individuals who were children at
immigration could naturalize in adulthood.
Less than one-fifth of foreign-born children are naturalized
citizens in census and surveys, and they probably derived that status at
parental naturalization. The older
a child at immigration, likelihood of derivative status is lesser simply
because older children would be more likely to age out of eligibility as
parents met residency requirements to naturalize. Children aged 0 to 10 years at
immigration would be more likely to derive citizenship. This analysis draws on linked records
for immigrants (1978-1991) and naturalizations (1978-1996). Despite limitations, preliminary
analyses illustrate this approach adds to understanding of naturalization
outcomes for child immigrants.
- “Naturalization
Experiences of U.S.
Immigrants: Highlights from Ten
Countries,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak
Poch (2004). Population Research
and Policy Review 23 (3, June): 187-218.The saga of U.S.
immigrant naturalization is merely sketched for about 25 million
immigrants entered in three decades of renewed immigration. This study documents naturalization
outcomes for immigrants from ten major countries of origin, using
administrative records on immigrants and naturalizations. Following the 1978-1987 admission
cohorts for the first decade or more of permanent residence, this study
finds significant covariate effects on the timing of naturalization by
origin, mode of entry, and immigrant visa class, net other influences of
demographic and background characteristics. Immigrants from the Philippines, Vietnam,
and China, naturalized
more quickly than immigrants from India,
Korea, Cuba, Colombia,
Jamaica, the Dominican Republic, and Mexico. Those who adjusted from statuses as
nonimmigrants, refugees, or asylees became naturalized citizens more
quickly. Those immigrants with
employment-sponsorship naturalized faster than family-sponsored
immigrants. Spouses of citizens,
spouses of permanent residents, spouses of siblings of citizens, and
spouses of sons and daughters of citizens naturalized faster than some
other immigrants. Gender was not
significant in the multivariate analysis but further research will more fully
explore sex-specific variation in the timing of naturalization given
likely variation in women’s representation by origin and admission
categories.
- “Home
and Flag: the New York
Story,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield and Bunnak Poch (2003). 2002 Proceedings of the American
Statistical Association, Section on Government Statistics [CD-ROM], Alexandria, VA:
American Statistical Association: 3783-3792. American communities with established
immigrant communities are popular destinations for newly arriving immigrants. These choices may reflect attractiveness
of economic and cultural opportunities or other amenities. There may also be underlying dynamics as
social networks facilitate migration and adjustment, and the family
members sponsored through the immigration system by their predecessors opt
to live nearby. This study examines
employment and family factors in patterns of naturalizing for a select
sample of immigrants and recently naturalized citizens living in New York City
focusing first on Dominicans arriving over 1978-1991. Women had greater propensity to
naturalize. Employment-sponsored
immigrants were more likely to do so than either immediate relatives of
citizens or immigrants admitted under family-sponsored preference
categories. Recent naturalizations,
nearly three-quarters of a million immigrants in New
York in the 1990s, are likely to lead to sponsored
immigration that helps sustain the population levels for New York City.
- “The
Process of Naturalizing: Contrasts
for Asian and Latin American Immigrants,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe
Xu, Bunnak Poch, and Thomas Kersen (2003).
Presented at the 2003 annual meeting of the Population Association
of America, Minneapolis,
May 1-3, 2003. This study
investigates gender and admission criteria in naturalizing for U.S.
immigrants of 1978, 1985, and 1990 from six countries. With evaluation of alternative
continuous-time hazard models over duration, the underlying hazard
function forms are the Gompertz for Cubans, Mexicans, and recent El
Salvadorans and the log-logistic for Chinese, Indians, and Filipinos. Latin Americans began more slowly than
Asians but they continued to naturalize in the second decade. Models controlling for unobserved
heterogeneity were preferable for Asians and Cubans. Employment-sponsored immigrants were
most likely to naturalize, and immediate relative spouses also showed high
propensities to naturalize. For
Mexicans, early Cubans, and recent Salvadorans, women naturalized sooner
than men, but, in contrast, Indian men, Filipino men, and early arriving
Chinese men naturalized sooner than women.
These models according to the underlying hazard function form are
more definitive for explaining naturalization with changing gender roles
and origin contexts over time. Latin American women’s naturalization
denotes their roles in settlement and perpetuation of migration.
- “A
Critique and Research Agenda on the Changing Latino Population,
1990-2010,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield (2002). Presented at Institute for Latino
Studies Seminar, University
of Notre Dame,
August 1, 2002. The focus is social
and demographic change in the U.S. Latino population over 1990-2010. Incorporation of Latino immigrants is a
critical part of the research agenda now and in the future, and
naturalization patterns are part of understanding political
participation. This paper presents
analyses of immigrant adults admitted over 1978-1987 and naturalization
records for immigrants from Latin American countries (Mexico, Cuba,
Colombia, the Dominican Republic)
to revisit labor force attachment and family reunification
hypotheses. Among findings from
origin-specific hazards models for duration to naturalization, greater
attachment to the labor force is associated with greater propensity toward
naturalizing, and those immigrants likely to have fewer family members in
the United States are more likely to naturalize.
- “The
Immigration-to-Naturalization Project:
Inception, Guidelines, Analyses, and Possibilities,” Karen A.
Woodrow-Lafield (2002). 2001
Proceedings of the American Statistical Association, Section on Government
Statistics [CD-ROM], Alexandria,
VA: American Statistical
Association (6 pages). This
presentation describes a new undertaking from inception to current
activities, specifically, the record linkage of administrative records for
several million immigrants admitted by the U.S. Immigration and
Naturalization Service (INS) over fiscal years 1978-1991 with
naturalization records over 1978-1996.
In the 1990s, immigrants applied for naturalization in
unprecedented numbers and advancement of this research agenda is timely
for understanding naturalization in America over two significant
decades. Although a National
Academy of Sciences panel was optimistic about such
immigrant-naturalization record linkage on a routine basis, only selected
immigrant cohorts were previously followed on naturalization. The project required a secure research
site with procedures for protection of confidentiality. During these cohorts’ progression
through the first and second decades of U.S. residence, multiple
analyses are ongoing as well as considerations for broader access by the
more general research community.
- “Naturalization
Experiences of U.S.
Immigrants,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak
Poch (2001). Proceedings of the
American Statistical Association, Social/Government Statistics Section, Alexandria, VA:
American Statistical Association: 106-111.
This paper describes initial analyses of the timing of
naturalization for nearly 8 million immigrants entered over
1978-1991. The major activities to
date were setting up the statistical data enclave, data preparation with
administrative records, developing record linkage strategies, and creation
of the provisional data set.
Results reported here relate to completed naturalization for
immigrants admitted over 1978-1987 from ten major sending countries, by
demographic characteristics, origin country, and admission criteria. The highest percentages naturalized are
for immigrants from Vietnam
(65 percent) and the Philippines
(62 percent) and the lowest were for immigrants from Mexico (18 percent) and the Dominican Republic
(24 percent). The percentage
naturalized for those admitted under employment-sponsored categories was
higher than for family-sponsored immigrants. Those having nonimmigrant experience had
higher naturalization percentages than those without. In general, women had higher
naturalization percentages, but for China,
India, and Vietnam,
the percentage naturalized for men was higher than for women. The next steps are to seek insights on
causal factors in timing of naturalization, intercohort variation in
timing of naturalization, and changes in the pace of naturalization.
- “Mexican
Migration and U.S.
Citizenship in the Early 21st Century,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield (2001). Invited presentation, Permanent Seminar
of International Migration 2001, organized by El Colegio de la Frontera
Norte (COLEF), El Colegio de Mexico (COLMEX), and Sociedad Mexicana de
Demografia (SOMEDE), Tijuana,
Baja California, Mexico, April 20, 2001. Under the Immigration and Nationality
Act, naturalization is a crucial mechanism for sponsorship of family
members as immigrants. The status
may also be an indicator of assimilation although this view is opposed by
the view that naturalization may reflect self-protective behavior in
securing access to public benefits and better health access. This study reports on completion of
naturalization by 1996 for Mexican immigrants of 1978-1987 and the role of
characteristics at admission based on hazards modeling for duration to
naturalization. Among findings,
greater attachment to the labor force is associated with greater
propensity toward naturalizing.
Second, those immigrants likely to have fewer family members in the
United States
are more likely to naturalize.
Third, differentials by gender suggest the importance of cultural
contexts, demographic diversity, and social capital. Some Western Hemisphere immigrants,
including Mexican immigrants, arriving since 1978 may be more likely to
have naturalized pursuant to extension of the visa preference system,
per-country limitations, and sponsorship benefits to the Western
Hemisphere. This sea
change may simply be part of the migration system initiated for U.S. labor provision and satisfying new
workers’ needs, a system with thriving social networks and U.S.
communities as permanent homes.
- “The
Hazards of Naturalizing in America:
Mexican and Chinese Immigrants,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu,
Bunnak Poch, and Thomas Kersen (2001).
Presented at the 2001 annual meeting of the Southern Sociological
Society, Atlanta. These analyses explore influences on
duration until naturalization for Mexican and Chinese immigrants admitted
in 1978, 1985, and 1990 based on linked administrative records for
naturalization. Event history
models are specified with socio-demographic characteristics at admission
and visa class of admission, but other likely influences are unobserved. The major focus is selection of the more
appropriate hazard models in continuous-time formulation by allowing the
underlying hazard or survival function over duration to follow several
forms (exponential, Weibull, Gompertz, log-normal, log-logistic and
generalized gamma distribution) and on investigating the value of
correction for unobserved heterogeneity.
From estimated Cox and other parametric proportional hazard models
and, given absence of time-dependent covariates and multiple states,
accelerated failure time models, the results show different hazard
function forms by origin, taking the Gompertz shape for Mexicans and the
log-logistic shape for Chinese.
Models with correction for unobserved heterogeneity are preferable
to those without the correction.
Those immigrants admitted through employment-sponsorship, either as
a principal or derivative beneficiary, have greater propensity of
naturalization. Immigrants from China
showed high propensity in naturalization regardless of whether admitted
through family-sponsorship or employment-sponsorship. For Mexicans, but not for Chinese, women
naturalized more than men.
- “Admission
Criteria and “Making It” in America as Citizens,” Karen A.
Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak Poch (2001). Presented at the 2001 annual meeting of
the Population Association of America, Washington, D.C. This study of immigrant naturalization
draws on new data linking immigrants entered over 1978-1991 to their
naturalizations as of 1996. Recent
studies of economic effects of the new immigrants address questions
relevant for immigration policy about admissions by visa class. This research begins to explore
experiences of Canadian and European origin immigrants (British, Polish,
Irish, Russian, and other) in timing of naturalization focusing on gender
and admission criteria. A striking
result is that Irish women admitted as professional or skilled workers or
as unmarried daughters of citizens were highly likely to naturalize
quickly. Males were more likely to
naturalize if admitted as spouses of professional workers or as unmarried
sons of citizens. These findings
are discussed and contrasted with prior results for Latin American and
Asian origin immigrants to elaborate the complicated mosaic of
contemporary patterns of citizenship and expand the theoretical framework
for settlement and citizenship.
- “Immigrant
Skills and Timing of Naturalization:
Mexico, China, and India,” Karen A.
Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu, Bunnak Poch, and Thomas Kersen (2001). Presented at the 2001 annual meeting of
the Population Association of America, Washington, D.C.
The changing national origin mix of immigrant flows of the past three
decades evoked debates about implications of immigrant skills at admission
for assimilation. The purpose of
this study is to explore hypotheses as to influence of human capital for
propensity to naturalize. The data
are for immigrants, lawful permanent residents, linked with
naturalizations as of 1996. The
analyses include male immigrants admitted in 1983-1991 from three leading
countries—197,000 from Mexico,
61,000 from China, and
62,000 from India,
of whom 13 percent, 41 percent, and 40 percent, respectively, have
naturalized. Prior research has
shown those admitted under employment-sponsored criteria are more likely
to naturalize. This research adopts
parallel approaches of using reported occupation and using potential
occupational earnings values to further elaborate on national origin and
progression to citizenship. Those
immigrants for whom occupational backgrounds are indicative of economic
assimilation may be more likely to naturalize more quickly than others,
irrespective of admission category.
- “Gender,
Origin, Admission Criteria, and Naturalization Outcomes,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu,
Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak Poch (2000). Presented at the 2000 annual meeting of
the Southern Demographic Association,New
Orleans.
Experiences of multiple immigrant cohorts are examined as to
gender, origin, and admission criteria in the timing of
naturalization. One incentive for
naturalizing is to gain the right of family reunification. Individuals entering as spouses may
especially seek this opportunity as a way of opening the door into the United States
for their family members living abroad.
Prior research suggests origin differences in completed
naturalization levels for foreign-born persons in the census, controlling
for duration of residence. Cox
regression modeling analyses include all lawfully admitted adult
immigrants over 1978-1991, with dummy variables for region of origin, and
also include region-specific analyses.
Asian origin immigrants show the greatest naturalization propensity
and Latin American immigrants show the least naturalization
propensity. Caribbean
women showed greater naturalization propensity than men. Immigrants, especially women, were more
likely to naturalize if they were admitted in categories associated with
lower social capital, such as employment-sponsored, spouses of aliens, and
spouses of citizens.
- “Gender
and the Family Reunification Hypothesis for Naturalization,” Karen A.
Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak Poch (2000). Presented at the 2000 annual meeting of
the Population Association of America, Los Angeles, California.
This paper presents initial analyses of immigrant and naturalization
records to revisit labor force attachment and family reunification
hypotheses for explaining naturalization.
Alternative views of naturalization are as a step conveying rights
for sponsoring family members as immigrants, as a measure of incorporation
or integration, or as a way of assuring access to public benefits and
better health. Focusing on
immigrants of ten major Latin American and Asian origins (Mexico, Cuba,
Colombia, the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, China, India, Korea, the
Philippines, and Vietnam), the data include about two million adults
admitted over 1978-1987. Pooled and
origin-specific hazards models are estimated for duration to
naturalization. Among findings,
greater attachment to the labor force is associated with greater propensity
toward naturalizing. Second, those
immigrants likely to have fewer family members in the United States
are more likely to naturalize.
Third, differentials by gender and origin are found, suggesting
roles for cultural contexts, demographic diversity, and social
capital. Finally, Western
Hemisphere immigrants seem to have become more likely to
naturalize after extension of the preference system and per country
limitations.
- “Immigration
in the Context of Introductory Sociology: An Example Using Immigrants
Microdata,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak
Poch (1999). In Revision. The “new immigration” has brought
greater awareness among social scientists and the public of immigrants’
characteristics, geographic distribution, and interconnections with social
institutions. We investigate
incorporation of immigration in introductory college courses in
sociology. First, we examine
immigration topics in major textbooks, course descriptions, and syllabi at
the introductory level, finding that immigration is not yet established
fully. Second, we illustrate an
advantageous strategy for using data for lawfully admitted immigrants to
illustrate immigration issues, demographic concepts, and analytic
reasoning in introductory-level sociology.
Published tabulations are easily and productively used within
introductory sociology. Based on
classroom presentations, these approaches are compatible with a central
theme of engaging students with research processes for greater understanding
and inquisitiveness.
- “Naturalization
for Two Cohorts of Mexican Immigrants,” Karen A. Woodrow-Lafield, Xiaohe
Xu, Thomas Kersen, and Bunnak Poch (1999).
Presented at the 1999 annual meeting of the Southern Demographic
Association, San Antonio. In Revision.The concepts of gender,
social capital, and human capital are examined in relation to the timing
of naturalization based on linked administrative records for Mexicans
admitted lawfully in 1982 and 1987 and naturalizations as of 1996. A series of Cox proportional hazard
models were calculated for characteristics-at-admission covariates on the
timing and occurrence of naturalization.
Key findings are: 1) women are more likely to naturalize than their
male counterparts; 2) recent immigrants are more likely to naturalize and
to naturalize faster than earlier immigrants; and 3) the propensity to
naturalize depends considerably on labor force attachment and gender. These results complement and enrich
understanding of naturalization for the Mexican-born population in the United States.