OVERVIEW -African Art

The african art history goes back into the mists of time, with the earliest examples being figures of people and animals carved into rock. Sculpture was started over 2000 years ago, but the materials used, such as wood, clay and even iron, deteriorated over time, and so we only have actual examples going back about 500 years. Most existing art is therefore relatively recent, and because of Western prejudice, African art has only come to flourish over the past hundred years.

Although this vast continent is home to over one thousand different ethnic groups, African art has broadly common characteristics which make it distinctly African. There are seven major types of art produced in Africa. These are masks, statues, furniture, textiles, pottery, beadwork, baskets, and metalwork. Most objects having shape are fashioned by men, while most decorative work such as painting and textiles, are produced by women.

PRACTICAL ELEMENTS OF AFRICAN ART

Unlike its European counterpart, African art usually serves a practical purpose in addition to having artistic beauty. Hence one finds richly decorated and intricately designed utensils, baskets, pottery, and chairs, all having a practical aspect which is often absent in other cultures. The elaborate artwork on such objects is used to signify the owner's status, or for religious purposes.

The form and style of African art usually depends on the beliefs of the artist's culture. This contrasts with European art, in which form and style often reflect the artist's desire for personal expression. An object of African art must first of all perform its function well. Beauty enables it to do so, especially when an object acts as an intermediary between the human world and the world of the spirits.

African artists often strive for balance, clarity of form, rigid lines, exaggeration or distortion, and stylized or symbolic depiction. Sculptures typically achieve balance with the right and left halves being mirror images. Balance and simplicity of form help convey meaning and aid clarity, and clarity helps the object carry out its purpose. Figures often feature a straight, strong neck, which conveys the idea of an upstanding and upright person in both a physical and moral sense.

When the hands, feet, head, or other parts of a figure are enlarged, it means that these parts are of particular importance to the society. Many Yoruba sculptures from Nigeria have enlarged heads, because the head is considered the location of a person's luck, wisdom and destiny. The Yoruba also enlarge the eyes because they are the windows to the soul. Some figures have large, muscular legs, indicating strength and hard work. Figurative sculptures are often idealized or generalized rather than being realistic. Because age is equated with wisdom, grey-haired individuals are often sculpted although the skin remains smooth and youthful.

MATERIALS FORMS AND STYLES

Materials used to make art depend largely on what is available. Wood, plant fibers, and clay are abundant in much of the continent. Where riverbeds provide good clay deposits, as in the Niger River valley of Nigeria, pottery and ceramic sculptures are plentiful. Soapstone is abundant in Zimbabwe, where the Shona people carved soapstone as early as the 14th century, and continue their craft today. Some materials are prized because of their scarcity, such as cowry shells or silk. In the past, the Nigerian king alone had the right to wear cowry shells

AFRICAN ART TRADITIONS

Western and Central Africa have a stronger artistic tradition than the rest of the continent. Good lands for crop cultivation, a settled rather than nomadic population, and peace-loving rather than warring kings may have nurtured the impetus to create in this region. African societies where trade was a driving economic force also developed artistic traditions. Beliefs frequently play a vital role in the kinds of art produced. In western Africa, trade and flourishing agricultural communities produced city-states in which kings became divinities producing plentiful harvests. In eastern Africa, fertile grasslands encouraged cattle herding and people tended to worship sky divinities and ancestral spirits. Religions from elsewhere, such as Islam and Christianity, also influenced artistic forms but these were adapted to local traditions. Crosses came to be produced in Central Africa as a sign of authority and as a hunting talisman.

ART AND THE SUPERNATURAL

Belief in the supernatural plays a pivotal role in all African societies. Magic and animism (belief in spirits) is central to African religion in general. Rituals are believed to exert an influence over negative forces and masks, statues, and headdresses form an intrinsic part of religious ritual. Masks are believed to be imbued with magical powers which transfer to the wearer on special occasions. Rituals are used to gain the favor of the ancestors, the gods, and the forces of nature. In the Ivory Coast, women are not allowed to look at the dancers who escort a deceased person into the spirit world for fear of harm to unborn children, and because their life-giving power may impede the progress of the departed person. Art objects, usually wooden or clay figures, are often used to make contact with departed spirits and guide their powers.

HISTORY OF AFRICAN ART BY REGION

Western Africa:

Western Africa is the home of many of the sculptural traditions for which African art has become internationally known. Wood carving is especially prominent in Cote d'Ivoire, in Sierra Leone and in Nigeria. Western Africa also claims an extensive range of other art forms, including clay sculpture, bronze casting, jewelry, and weaving. Some of these traditions are driven by religious practices in agricultural societies, others by the patronage of kings. The Senufo people of the Cote d'Ivoire make a staff with a female figure at the top, symbolizing both the power of humans to reproduce and the fertility of the soil. Ghana is well known for its Kente cloth, carved wooden stools, gold jewelry, and wood carvings. In days past, the kings of Ghana wore so much gold that they inspired the saying: "Great men move slowly."

Eastern Africa:

Eastern Africa stretches from Sudan in the north to Mozambique in the south, and includes the countries of Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, and the island nation of Madagascar. In these nations as elsewhere on the continent, indigenous African religions require statues, masks, and other objects for use in rituals of initiation, marriage, and death. In Malawi, masks were developed for rites of male initiation, as well as for maintaining close contact with the ancestors. In Somalia, Tanzania and Kenya, we find finely carved wooden headrests, baskets, wooden vessels and beadwork

Southern Africa:

Southern Africa encompasses Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Lesotho and South Africa. The region is home to some of the oldest art in Africa, but generally lacks the strong artistic traditions found elsewhere on the continent, although Zimbabwe is home to excellent soapstone sculpture.

Beadwork created by Shona, Zulu, Xhosa, and Ndebele women is one of the more recent artistic traditions in Southern Africa. Beads are used to make necklaces, headbands, bracelets, and leg ornaments, and to decorate clothing. Beadwork patterns serve not only beautify but also act as signals showing the wearer's rank, wealth, stage in life, or profession. Among the Thembu, a subgroup of the Xhosa, a girl who likes a boy will give him a headband. If he accepts, a relationship is started. Arab slave traders brought the first glass beads to southern Africa. Glass beads became more available after English colonists settled in Cape Town in the 1780s.

A rich tradition of woodcarving among the Zulu, Shona and Sotho, has produced high quality figures and ceremonial vessels, particularly pots for storing beer. Mural painting developed among the Ndebele in Northern South Africa in the 1930s and '40s. It became a way of expressing ethnic identity on the isolated farmsteads where they lived after European colonists drove them out of their native homes.

Central Africa:

Central Africa embraces the Cameroon, Chad, Angola, Zambia, Rwandi, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). Several ethnic groups have made important contributions to artistic tradition in this region. As is the case elsewhere, much Central African art reinforces the authority of leaders and fulfills roles in ritual and religion. Both the Luba and the Kuba peoples of the DRC developed statues that represented their kings. When the ruler was away, his statue would be carefully rubbed with oil. Wooden stools were also an important artistic tradition here. Among the Mangbetu of the northern DRC, elaborate drinking cups were fashioned into works of art for use by important people.

The Kongo people of the Western DRC developed figures for protection against enemies. The magical powers of the figures are activated by driving nails or blades into them. Scarification of the body is also an important indication of status and beauty. The Chokwe, Lunda, and other groups in northern Zambia, northern Angola, and southern DRC create a series of masks for use during initiation rites. Performances with these masks serve to educate the boys about their social responsibilities as adult males.

AFRICAN ART INFLUENCE ON WESTERN AND MODERN ART

For centuries, exposure to African art had little effect on the Europeans.. The concepts behind African art-its function in ritual and its emphasis on abstract patterning rather than representation-made it so foreign to European minds that it was hardly viewed as art at all. Before the 20th century, anthropologists and others who were interested in African cultures didn't consider their art. It was only in the late 19th century that Europeans began collecting objects from sub-Saharan Africa and housed them in museums as objects from of exotic cultures.

In the 20th century, African art has come to influence much Western art and the concepts of beauty that underlie it. Beginning in the early 1900's a search for new artistic forms led European artists to look anew at the abstract forms of African art.

Since that time recognition of the artistic value of African art has continued to grow. Western artists, seeking new forms of inspiration, discovered African sculpture. Their enthusiasm for African art was based on form, although Western artists had only vague ideas about the cultures that had produced the art.

Modern European art movements such as cubism and expressionism have drawn strongly on African art. The abstract character of African art inspired early modern painters such as Pablo Picasso and Henry Moore. Picasso first denied and later admitted the powerful influence which African art had on him. African art also inspired many 20th-century American artists including Meta Warrick Fuller and Martin Puryear. In the 1990s American artist Renée Stout based her sculptures on figures created by the Kongo people of central Africa.

Because early scientists did not see African art as art, the names of the artists have been lost. Efforts are now underway to return some of the works of art from European museums to their lands of origin. As collections of African art have grown, Westerners have gradually come to a fuller understanding of African art, its cultural functions, and its aesthetic values. This is your opportunity to expand your knowledge and appreciation of African art by owning a piece of Africa.

Elements of the African Aesthetic

Resemblance to a human being:
African artists praise a carved figure by saying that it "looks like a human being." Artists seldom portray particular people, actual animals, or the actual form of invisible spirits. Rather, they aim to portray ideas about reality, spiritual or human, and express these ideas through human or animal images.

Luminosity:
The lustrously smooth surface of most African figural sculpture, often embellished with decorative scarification, indicates beautifully shining, healthy skin. Figures with rough surfaces and deformities are intended to appear ugly and morally flawed.

Self-composure:
The person who is composed behaves in a measured and rational way; he or she is controlled, proud, dignified, and cool.

Youthfulness:
A youthful appearance connotes vigor, productiveness, fertility, and an ability to labor. Illness and deformity are rarely depicted because they are signs of evil.

Clarity of form and detail, complexity of composition, balance and symmetry, smoothness of finish:
African artists place a high value on fine workmanship and mastery of the medium.

Chinese Art

The Visual Arts of China make Chinese traditional Culture truly a beauty and a charm. Traditional Chinese Painting, Calligraphy, and Chop Engraving are great treasures of the Chinese civilization as they date far back into history and are still a great part of Chinese society today. The Porcelain Pottery and Embroidery of China are like no other; and the uniqueness and beauty of Macramé and Paper Cutting set a new standard for visual arts.

Painting

Paintings made before the Tang dynasty (618-907 A.D.) were mainly line drawings of people; this was the golden age of human figure drawing. By the mid-Tang dynasty, many landscape and flower-and-bird paintings began to appear. Paintings of mountains, forests, fields, and gardens have the ability to transport one away from the vexations of the material world into a peaceful, carefree realm. Because of the ability of mountain, forest, field, and garden paintings to transport one to a peaceful realm, landscape paintings have always been highly regarded by literati and officials. The flowers, grass, trees, stones, birds, and other animals illustrated in traditional Chinese painting is also admired. Thus the human figure, landscape, flower-and-bird types of painting are the three main types of traditional Chinese painting.

The upper classes of the Tang and Sung (960-1279 A.D.) dynasties were major supporters of Chinese painting. The works of this period tended to be more serious and to have a more political and educational significance, and they were also more elaborate and extravagant in style. Because the Sung dynasty court established a systematized academy of painting, granted patronage to painters in the academy, and sponsored the training of promising painters, the academy of painting reached the zenith of its activity during this period.

As the times changed due social, economic, and cultural influences, an increasing number of literati began to paint, and literature came to have an ever-expanding influence on painting. By 11th century A.D., the school of "literati painting" had already emerged. And by the Mongol Yuan dynasty (1271-1368 A.D.), a formal painting academy within the imperial palace no longer existed, so the court style of painting declined. At this point, the "literati" school of painting became mainstream, and the literati painters guided the direction of painting.

Literati prefer to paint without restriction, and they are fond of subject matter such as mountains and rocks, clouds and water, flowers and trees, and the "four gentlemen" (plum blossoms, orchids, bamboo, and chrysanthemums). Because natural objects are easier subjects to paint than the human figure, the painter can better use the brush and ink's potential for free expression.

Whether chinese painting is "realistic" is the object of frequent debate. Realism in Chinese painting reached its climax in the painting of the Tang and Sung dynasties. However, the kind of "realism" used in Chinese painting is not an objective perception through the sense of sight but rather a subjective expression of recognition or insight. For instance, a Sung dynasty painter used watercolor wash techniques to achieve an effect of light and dark, which represented the forces of "yin" and "yang", to express his grasp of the eternal and most characteristic nature of his human subject. The fundamental component of Chinese painting, as in Chinese calligraphy is the line. Because of this shared feature, these two arts have had a close mutual relationship since the beginning of time. By the time that "literati" painting had become popular, a trend began to fuse calligraphy and painting.

Beginning in the Sung dynasty, a small number of artists began to write the names of the giver and recipient of the painting, or to stamp their name chop, in a corner of the work. When "literati" painting was in vogue, painters began adding personal notes, or related lines of poetry, to display their prose and calligraphic skill. Thus, writing on paintings was given a more prominent place on the work. This caused a union of signature, names of giver and receiver, and notes on the painting or related verse, with the painting itself. The stamping of name chops also became established at this time, and the addition of name chop impressions, an art in itself, further enriched Chinese painting.

Early Chinese Architecture

As a result of wars and invasions, there are few existing buildings in China predating the Ming dynasty (1368–1644). Insubstantial construction, largely of wood and rice-paper screens, also accounts for the tremendous loss. However, evidence of early architectural development is provided by representations in Han dynasty (202 B.C.–A.D. 220) bronze vessels, tomb models, carvings, and tiles. One substantial early structure that remains is the Great Wall, begun in the 3d cent. B.C.

The background of Chinese architecture has been somewhat clarified as a result of the increase of archaeological activity since 1949. Discoveries in 1952 near Xi'an brought to light a complete Neolithic village near Banpo. Two kinds of mud-walled dwellings were found—of round and rectangular shapes. As in later construction, buildings were usually oriented to the south, probably as a protection against the north wind.

Structural Elements

As early as the neolithic period, a basic principle of Chinese architecture was already established, wherein columns spaced at intervals, rather than walls, provided the support for the roof. Walls came to serve merely as enclosing screens. Although the typical Chinese roof was probably developed in the Shang (c.1523–1027 B.C.) or the Chou (1027–c.256 B.C.) period, its features are unknown to us until the Han dynasty. Then it appeared in the form that we recognize today as a hallmark of Chinese architecture—a graceful, overhanging roof, sometimes in several tiers, with upturned eaves. The roof rests on a series of four-part brackets, which in turn are supported by other clusters of brackets set on columns. Decorative possibilities were soon realized in the colorful glazed tiling of roofs and the carving and painting of brackets, which became more and more elaborate.

The Chinese Ground Plan

During the Han dynasty a characteristic ground plan was developed; it remained relatively constant through the centuries, applied to palaces and temple buildings in both China and Japan. Surrounded by an exterior wall, the building complex was arranged along a central axis and was approached by an entrance gate and then a spirit gate. Behind them in sequence came a public hall and finally the private quarters. Each residential unit was built around a central court with a garden. Based on imperial zoos and parks, the private residential garden soon became a distinctive feature of the walled complex and an art form in itself. The garden was laid out in a definite scheme, with a rest area and pavilions, ponds, and semiplanned vegetation.

The Pagoda

In the first centuries A.D., the coming of Buddhism did not strongly affect the Chinese architectural style. Although there was considerable building activity, temples continued to be constructed in the native tradition. The only distinctly Buddhist type of building is the pagoda, which derived from the Indian stupa. Several masonry pagodas are extant that date from the 6th cent. In the T'ang period (618–906) pagodas were usually simple, square structures; they later became more elaborate in shape and adornment.

In the 11th cent. a distinctive type of pagoda was created in the Liao territory. Built in three different stages, with a base, a shaft, and a crown, the structure was surmounted by a spire. Its plan was often octagonal, possibly as a result of the influence of Tantric Buddhism in which the cosmological scheme was arranged into eight compass points rather than four. One of the finest Liao structures is the White Pagoda at Chengde.

Architectural Development:

T'ang Dynasty and Thereafter

Through the T'ang and Sung dynasties, Chinese architecture retained the basic characteristics already developed in the Han, although there was a greater technical mastery and a tendency toward rich adornment and complexity of the system of bracketing. Though little survives of the wooden structures, our knowledge of their appearance comes from detailed representations in painted scrolls, especially by the Li school of artists in the T'ang period and their followers (see Chinese art).

Extant monuments in Japan, profoundly influenced by Chinese architecture, also reflect the progress of Chinese building techniques. Examples are the 7th-century monastery of Horyu-ji and the 8th-century monastery of Toshodai-ji. In the Ming period the complex of courtyards, parks, and palaces became labyrinthian in scope. Little remains of the imperial palaces at Nanjing, the capital of the Ming dynasty until 1421.

Modern Styles

Since the late 19th cent. the Chinese have adopted European architectural styles. When first under Communist rule they tended to imitate modern Soviet buildings. The trend has been toward the impressively massive and the clearly functional in public buildings (e.g., the Great Hall of the People, 1959; Beijing). In such buildings only in the detailing around window frames and doorways can traditional features still be seen.

Chinese Architecture

Chinese architecture is most famous for the Great Wall of China. But, there is so much more to Chinese Architecture than just that huge wall. Their temples are large and extravagant. Their palaces are a pleasure to look at. Even their roofs are breathtaking and detailed to the last drop of gloss or paint. Probably the most under-appreciated structure in all of China is the Forbidden City. If you would like to find more information about Chinese architecture, then you have come to the right place.

A Chinese structure is based on the principle of balance and symmetry. Office buildings, residences, temples, and palaces all follow the principle that the main structure is the axis. The secondary structures are positioned as two wings on either side to form the main room and yard. The distribution of interior space reflects Chinese social and ethnical values. For example, a traditional residential building assigns family members based on the family's hierarchy.

Temples and Palaces

One fabulous example of Chinese architecture is the Buddhist temple which can be found scattered around China. Unfortunately, there are not many of these temples left. The reason being that most of them were torn down because the space was either needed for urban development, or others just fell apart because of many years of neglect. One tower which still remains is nearly 400 feet high which was erected in the Yung-ning-ssu dynasty. This temple is located at Toyang and was made at the beginning of the 6th century. However, there is not much information which can be found about these towers.

Pagodas

Information which is available says that the most distinctive kinds of Buddhist buildings in China are the stupa (t'a) or pagoda. The pagoda was mainly used to house sacred objects. As for the architecture, these temples can take the form of a storied tower, or, more rarely, a upturned bowl. As the centuries passed, however, the shape of these temples took new forms. In the second and third century, the structures were basically made out of wood. Their shape took the form of a tetragonal under Sung during the 10th Century. The next dynasty, Tang, decided to have their towers shaped into an octagon or diagonal. The number of stories varied with each of the buildings. The height demised regularly from the base to the summit but everything else remained the same.

Chinese Cities

Inside each Chinese city in the past, all had their own unique personalities. But to protect each of these cities, all of the Chinese cities were surrounded by strong, high walls. Inside those protective walls were wealthy houses which were made of wood and had tiles which were either painted with paint or a gloss. These types of houses all had their own walls to protect them.

The merchants, peasants, and poor did not have such luxuries. Most of their houses were made up of mud bricks and roots of reeds. Unfortunately,

these houses were almost always drafty and did not protect their residence from the harsh elements. Another down side to these houses is that most of them only had one room which would include the bathroom, bedroom, dining room, kitchen, and any other room which was essential to life back then.

Roofs

Even though it may not seem like roofs are An important part of Chinese architecture, they are very important. Roofs did not only protect residences from the elements, they also had a deeper meaning. For example, temple roofs were curved because the Buddhist believed that it helped ward off evil spirits which were believed to be straight lines. The temple's roof is also made of glazed ceramic tiles and has an overhanging cave distinguished by a graceful upward slope. The arc at which the roof turns comes from the intricate fit of rafters. They used rods of short rafters that melt together Even wealthy homes had elaborate roofs.

One perfect example of splendid roofs would be located inside the wonderful palace, The Forbidden Palace. The thirteen tombs all have roof tiles which are a brilliant yellow, green, and red. The ridges of each roof carries figurines and/or mythical creatures. The curve of each roof can be no more than a sweep and the most intricate designs on the roof are almost always pointing south-east. However, there are

some down sides to having all of these decorations of the roof. The tremendous weight could eventually bring down the entire complex. That is why the Chinese have added an additional colonnade to support the weight under the outer edges, reducing the bracket system to mere decorations. The brackets are decorated by elaborately painting them with bright colors and eye-popping designs.

The Forbidden City

In China, there is one great city which has all of the wonder and splendor of old China. This city is called the Forbidden City which is located within the inner city of Beijing. In actuality, the Forbidden City is a moated palace with many religious locations within that moat. In this section, you will learn about the many various places which make up this once mysterious city.

First, the history and basic idea of this imperial city. It is believed that this palace was built during the early Qing dynasty. It was never assumed of any national importance until the Qubilai Qan chose it as his personal seat in the year 1260 A. D. The city was established as the main capital by the Bing Emperors during the early 15th century. One thing that makes it so great lies with the lay out. Symmetry and the logical placing of all of these buildings are located everywhere.

Second, there are many structures which make this city stand out as a place of many treasures and great art. There are avenues of lions, mythical animals, camels, elephants, horses, officials, and guardians carved from single blocks of marble standing guard. They are placed right along the "Spirit Way." These structures can also be found all throughout the city and are always placed in a certain spot for a reason - sometimes for protection of evil spirits and sometimes for decoration. Another place where you could see these stone figures is on top of a tomb's roof or important building's roof . There could be a dragon, lion, etc., on any roof, or, there could be a combination of these figures.

Almost everyone has heard of the huge, stone wall named the Great Wall of China. The Great Wall of China was built mainly to protect the Chinese Empire from invaders from the Mongolians. This huge wall stretches over 1,500 miles and extends from Kansu in the west to the Yellow sea in the east. One problem is that we do not know the precise date in which the Great Wall was built. It is believed to be built between 246 and 209 B. C.

Islamic Art and Architecture

Review of Islamic Architecture

The earliest architectural monument of Islam that retains most of its original form is the Dome of the Rock (Qubbat al-Sakhrah) in Jerusalem, constructed in 691-92 on the site of the Jewish Second Temple. Muslims believe it to be the spot from which prophet Muhammad ascended to heaven.

It has mosaics depicting scrolling vines and flowers, jewels, and crowns in greens, blues, and gold. Similar in some aspects is the later Great Mosque of Damascus which was built by Al Walid over what was originally a Roman temple. The interior walls have stone mosaics that depict crowns, fantastic plants, realistic trees, and even empty towns. This is thought to represent Paradise for the faithful Muslim. Both the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem and the great Mosque of Damascus used the Syrian cut-stone technique of building and popularized the use of the dome.

The 8th-century desert palace Khirbat al-Mafjar (in present-day Jordan) reveals a wealth of carved and molded stucco decoration, sculptured stone relief's, and figural fresco paintings. In 750 the Abbasid dynasty moved the capital east to Baghdad, and from 836 to 892 the Abbasid rulers resided at Samarra. The Great Mosque of Samarra is an important example of the Iraqi hypostyle, noted for its massive size and spectacular minaret. In Iran few Islamic buildings erected before the 10th cent. are still standing. Sassanid building techniques, such as the squinch, were combined with the mosque form. Sassanid influence is also strong in many Umayyad dynasty residential palaces, built mostly in Syria. The most famous is the 8th-century palace of Mshatta; much of its delicately carved stone facade is now in Berlin.

In the middle of the 8th cent. the last of the Umayyads escaped to Spain and re-founded his dynasty there. The great Mosque of Córdoba was begun in 785 and is famous for its rows of double-tiered arches. The mosque was extended four times. The culture of Islamic Spain reached its apogee in Moorish art and architecture. Faïence and lacy pierced-stone screens are the hallmarks of its decoration. The same style prevails in N Africa and is seen at its best in Fès, Morocco, where much elaborately carved wood is used. The Mudé jarstyle of Spain, employed throughout the 18th cent. and influential until much later, is based on this architecture.

Late in the 9th cent. the governor of Egypt, Ibn Tulun, initiated the high period of Egypto-Islamic art with the building of his famous mosque in Cairo. In the 10th cent. the Fatimids introduced into Egypt the decorative stalactite ceiling from Iran and placed emphasis on decorative flat moldings. The most important Fatimid buildings are the Cairo mosques of al-Azhar and al-Aqmar. The cruciform Mosque of Hasanin Cairo, built by a Mamluk sultan in 1536, still reflects Persian influence.

In India a distinct style, preserved mainly in architecture, developed after the Delhi Sultanate was established (1192). This art made extensive use of stone and reflected Indian adaptation to Islam rule, until Mughal art replaced it in the 17th cent, seen in Taj Mahal. The square Char Minar of Hyderabad (1591) with large arches, arcades, and minarets is typical.

In Turkey the mosque form was also derived from Persia, as was most Turkish art. The great Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia, adapted for use as a mosque, greatly influenced Turkish architects. The most famous among these is Sinan, chief architect in the Ottoman court from 1539 until his death in 1588. He constructed or designed most of Sulayman I's buildings, the most noted of which is his mosque (c.1557) in Istanbul, where he is buried. It has four minarets and stained-glass windows flanking the mihrab. The mosque (1614) of Sultan Ahmed is similarly distinguished by its dome lit by numerous windows, and wall surfaces covered with green and blue tiles. Fine ornate buildings were erected in Turkey until the middle of the 17th cent.