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* This article is a modified version of Unit 3 of FEMA's Independent Study Course IS-241Decision Making and Problem Solving.
Being able to make decisions and solve problems effectively is a necessary and vital part of the job for every emergency manager, planner, and responder. In this article, you will learn about the various styles of decision-making. You will learn how to:
A psychological type is a personality pattern based on the theory of psychiatrist Carl Jung. Based on his observation of people's behavior, Jung concluded that people have inherent differences in how they use their minds and where they derive and focus their energy.
Jung identified two mental processes:
Jung also identified two different ways in which people do each of these mental activities:
People also differ in where they derive and focus their energy. They are either externally oriented (extroverts), energized by people and activity; or internally oriented (introverts), energized by ideas and thoughts.
These different ways of organizing and relating to the world obviously can be combined in different ways, thus creating different psychological types. For example, one person could be an extrovert who relies on thinking more than feeling and sensing over intuiting, while another individual could be an introvert who is intuitive and feeling-oriented.
Preferences are the dominant ways in which an individual functions. The following brief exercise illustrates what is meant by preferences.
Fold your hands. Note which thumb is on top. Now fold your hands so that the opposite thumb is on top. Did you notice that you naturally fold your hands one way, while the other required a bit more thought and effort? The natural way-the way you do it first, without thinking-is your preference. Notice that you were able to do the task the other way, but that it was not your preferred way.
One kind of personality test called a type inventory can help you to determine your preferred or dominant ways of functioning, including your preferred decision-making style. Such tests ask you to answer a series of questions, and, based on your responses, assign you a type that is an aggregate of your preferences.
One such test is the MBTIŪ. The MBTIŪ is based on the personality theory of Jung previously described. It assesses the test taker's preferences on four polarities:
Based on the test taker's expressed preferences, the MBTIŪ assigns a type coded by four letters (one letter for each polarity-e.g., E or I for the first scale). Because these four preferences can be combined in various ways, there are a total of 16 psychological types.
It is important to note that there are no right or wrong preferences. Each type has characteristic strengths and weaknesses. The point is to know yourself so that you can maximize your strengths, minimize or compensate for your weaknesses, and realize that your preferences affect the way you make decisions.
The Myers-Briggs Type IndicatorŪ
Log onto the MBTIŪ Web site and complete the inventory. Note your type and then continue with this article.
MBTIŪ Web site: www.humanmetrics.com/cgi-win/JTypes2.asp (will open in a new window)
Our preferences affect how we make decisions. For example, someone who is thinking-oriented will obviously have a different approach to decision making than someone who is feeling-oriented.
Your Type-What Does It Mean for Decision Making?
When you took the personality profile online, you received four letters indicating your preferred type (of two possible types) in each of four functions. The two middle letters (S or N, T or F) indicate your dominant decision-making type.
Each dominant function has its own characteristic strengths and blind spots when it comes to decision-making. The following are some generalizations about each dominant function:
What Does It Mean to Flex?
A key to good decision-making is that it uses both sensing and intuition to gather all the pertinent information, and both thinking and feeling to weigh all the factors involved. When we rely only on our dominant function, we tend to miss things and make poorer decisions.
To flex means to ask yourself the questions of the other three functions, as well as the questions of your dominant function that naturally occur to you. Although this process may feel awkward at first, it will lead to decisions that are more sound.
In addition to the four dominant functions explained above, there are also four styles of decision-making based on who makes the decision. As you read through the four styles, note that the amount of control that the leader has over the decision drops from total to almost none. Yet, the leader retains ultimate responsibility.
As an emergency manager, you work often in situations that require a high degree of coordination. These cases call for a group decision-making process. There are other times, however, when you must make a command decision alone. Several factors affect whether an individual or a group should make a decision. Use the questions in Job Aid #1 to determine whether the circumstances call for an individual or group decision.
Individual Decision Making
In individual decision-making, the leader must make the decision alone, and input from others is limited to collecting relevant information.
Decision Making Through Consultation
In consultation, the leader shares the issue with one or more people-seeking ideas, opinions, and suggestions-and then makes a decision. The leader considers the input of others, but the final decision may or may not be influenced by it.
Group Decision Making
In this case, the leader and others work together until they reach a consensus decision. Each group member's opinion and point of view is considered. As a result of helping to make the decision, group members buy into the final decision and commit to supporting its implementation.
Delegating the Decision
When delegating a decision, the leader sets the parameters, and then allows one or more others to make the final decision. Although the leader does not make the decision, he or she supports it.
Group decision-making requires good leadership to be successful. There are special conditions necessary for group decision making, such as adequate time. There are also particular pitfalls unique to group decision making, such as "groupthink."
Avoiding "Groupthink"
"Groupthink" is a phenomenon that occurs in a cohesive group when members let their need to agree with each other interfere with their ability to think about the decision critically. Three conditions may lead to "groupthink":
1. Overestimation of the group's ability and power:
2. A "we" vs. "they" attitude:
3. Pressure toward conformity:
The key to avoiding or mitigating groupthink lies in the behavior of the group leader. If you are the leader of a group with the potential to exhibit groupthink behavior, you may want to take one or more of the following preventive actions:
Groupthink is more likely to occur in an emergency situation for two reasons:
To minimize groupthink during an emergency:
When leaders can influence their groups to avoid groupthink, decision-making becomes possible based on a healthy consensus. Consensus is not the same as 100-percent agreement. In consensus, group members determine that they actively support the decision of the group, even though it might not be their personal choice.
Use Job Aid #2 to lead groups toward reaching a healthy consensus rather than a premature decision born out of groupthink.
Think of someone you know who seems to be a born decision maker. What makes him or her effective? Most likely, he or she makes decisions with competence and confidence, and most of his or her decisions work out right. But what is underlying that decision-making skill? Research has shown that effective decision makers share several attributes.
Attributes of an Effective Decision Maker
Effective decision makers tend to have the following attributes:
In addition, smart decision makers will begin with a review of the information at hand (e.g., the EOP, SOPs, etc.) because, if the planning process is complete, many common situations will have been anticipated, and procedures for what to do in those situations will be in place.
Decision-making and problem solving are critically important skill areas for emergency managers, planners, first responders, voluntary agency coordinators, and other professionals in emergency management. Being aware of your personal decision-making style can help you make sound decisions and solve problems more effectively.
Job Aids