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Scholastic Knowledge Base
The Scholastics organized the basic principles of Greek logic and philosophy into a Christian learning
environment to help us understand and defend the faith. Here are a few notes in Scholastic thinking
that should offer some refreshing aid for adult Catholic thought
| Basics of clear thinking: Epistemology. | |
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THESIS I: Universal skepticism is absolutely impossible.
A few definitions
EPISTEMOLOGY The science that sets forth and establishes the existence of true and certain human knowledge, the means (in principle not technique) of acquiring such knowledge, and the norms to distinguish such knowledge from falsity. (Formal logic deals with the correctness of intellectual operations) Epistemology establishes the validity of (understanding) certain knowledge; formal logic establishes the means of (attaining) certain knowledge.
ERROR or falsity, is the positive deformity or disagreement of thought with the object. It consists of affirming what should not be affirmed or denying what should not be denied.
IGNORANCE is the absence of knowledge in a subject capable of possessing such knowledge.
DOUBT is the wavering between assent and dissent, the intellect’s suspension of assent for fear of error.
OPINION is the assent to one of two (or more) contradictory judgments, with more or less fear of error.
CERTITUDE is the firm assent to a truth without fear of error. The intellect forms a judgment unreservedly and fearlessly. In this state the intellect reposes (rests, relaxed) convinced it is in possession of truth.
Aside: Truth is the object (purpose) of the intellect. Good is the object (purpose) of the will. Beauty is the object of the emotional response of the human..
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THESIS I: Universal skepticism is absolutely impossible.
Note on how a thesis is proved. Proving means making evident. Direct proof is one that shows from certain positive principles that the fact is so. Indirect proof shows the absurdity, or impossibility of the contradictory. (These are tools of minor logic…Especially the principle of contradiction: A thing cannot be and not be at the same time. Red is never green, etc. ) The self-evident cannot be proved. The sun is shining. The ball is on the floor, etc.
The thesis that universal skepticism is absolutely impossible is proven by indirect means.
PROOF: Universal skepticism involves a contradiction. For, if a universal skeptic were to exist, he would doubt and AT THE SAME TIME not doubt about all things. He would doubt about all things, else he would not be a universal skeptic. He would not doubt about all things because he supposes as certain that he can distinguish between error and truth when he doubts. What involves a contradiction is impossible. Therefore universal skepticism is absolutely impossible.
Note that it is impossible to be more direct in proof than this (indirect proof); otherwise we would end up in the vicious circle. Once a contradiction is established, there is no further recourse, other than to repeat the contradiction in a vicious circle.
CORRELATIONS (IE, RELATED CONCLUSIONS)
Cor 1: There really are no universal skeptics, even though some try to claim the title. Most, like Hume, must confess that they live, talk and act like other people in daily affairs, accepting the truth of a contract or a transaction, the trust of another’s practical advice on the weather, etc.
Cor 2. Because we cannot doubt everything, then it is logical to conclude that some things can be known with certitude. (to be demonstrated later) The intellect, when acting according to its nature, is infallible, and tends toward truth. The fitness of our intellect to make correct judgments all the time is not absolute. Put more simply, an error presupposes the possibility of the truth.
Cor 3. Some sources of error are: prejudicial judgments, limits of our intellectual powers, lack of attention, confusion of ideas, lack of logic, influence of the will, etc.
--END ABSTRACT OF THESIS #1--
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Space for future critical notes. |
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THESIS II: Universal methodic doubt renders all demonstration impossible, and leads to universal skepticism
A few definitions
METHOD is the order observed in a series of operations to attain a specific end. The method referred to in this thesis applies to human thought.
METHODIC DOUBT is the systematic suspension of our certitude in order to scientifically discover truth.
UNIVERSAL METHODIC DOUBT (UMD) is the simulated, fictitious, doubt about everything (not just a particular scientific quest or problem).
THE DEMONSTRATION (which is destroyed by UMD) is the central act of reasoning. A = B Deducing new knowledge, a new truth, B = C by comparing two known truths to a third Ergo: A = C and noting the agreement (or disagreement) between them.
This thesis is a direct refutation of the main philosophical system of Rene Descartes (1596 – 1650), and his scholastic predecessors.
PROOF Universal methodic doubt eliminates any certitude, including the principle of contradiction, therefore we can never attain certain conclusions. Universal methodic doubt even destroys acceptance of the self-evident, thus further inviting universal skepticism. The Cartesian method is in fact only a variation of universal skepticism. Both destroy logical reasoning and even intuition (see Thesis III for an explanation of intuition).
Correlatives: While Plato, Aristotle, Augustine and Aquinas (along with all other great thinkers) often pose an argument in the form of a doubtful question, they do so only to prove a specific point; to focus the listener’s mind on the specific problem in order to seek the truth.
Descartes postulated the UMD had to be the starting point for every philosophical quest. But he did holdout for one, relatively useless, starting point of certitude: I think, therefore I am. Augustine prefigured Descartes “Cogito ergo sum,” with his “Even if I am deceived, I exist.” (City of God, XI, 26)
The most dangerous effect of the Cartesian system is that it never leads to the existence of God.
Having rejected universal doubt as the starting point to intellectual discovery, we next investigate the various types of certitude we do experience (Thesis III) and the most primitive or fundamental truths of which we can be certain (Thesis IV)
--END ABSTRACT OF THESIS II—
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Text abstracted from: Notes on Epistemology, by Walter F. Cunningham, S.J.; and Reality and The Mind, Epistemology, by Celestine N. Bittle, O.F.M. Cap. |