SLSrs &' 'X&   PVVi Vm Xm m m m ///////////////////////////////////////////// ndBack to Laws, Regulations & Policies Chart Back to Toxicology Concepts Page Back to Home Page 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Overview Introduction Establishing National Primary Drinking Water Standards Establishing National Secondary Drinking Water Standards Future Standards and Regulation Development Information about Drinking Water Systems Drinking Water Overview Drinking water comes from two types of sources - surface water and groundwater. Surface water is treated before being utilized as drinking water. Groundwater may or may not be treated before being consumed. People who have wells often drink water that has not been treated. Whether water is treated or not, it is never pure water. It always contains natural minerals, sometimes in amounts that may cause adverse effects. It may also contain living organisms, such as bacteria, or man-made chemicals. Records indicate that the most serious adverse effects resulting from drinking water are due to microorganisms. The recent contamination of the Milwaukee water system with a microorganism called Cryptosporidium led to illness in many thousands of people. A few years ago, a cholera outbreak in Peru was linked to drinking water. However, there is also concern about some chemical contaminants, such as nitrates, lead, petroleum products, pesticides and solvents. These contaminants can get into surface water through runoff from land, or from direct discharges into rivers and lakes. Runoff from farms may increase pesticide and nitrate levels in surface water. Discharges from municipalities may introduce both microorganisms and chemicals. Industrial discharges may result in chemical contamination. Contamination of groundwater general occurs from leaching of contaminants at or near the surface through the soil to the aquifer containing the drinking water. Sites where chemicals are used or disposed of are common sources of such contamination. However, groundwater can also be contaminated by microorganisms, especially from improperly installed or operating septic systems. The government has developed regulations and guidance that describe acceptable levels of contaminants in drinking water. The Safe Drinking Water Act governs public water systems and as part of this, the EPA has established Maximum Contaminant Levels for nearly 100 microbiological and chemical contaminants. In addition, the EPA has published health advisory levels for a number of other chemicals. Many states have also established their own standards. The levels of contaminants can be reduced in a number of ways. One is to reduce the sources. For example, agricultural practices can be changed to limit runoff and leaching. Underground storage tanks can be constructed better to minimize leakage. Waste disposal sites can be required to have liners and leachate collection systems. Industries and municipalities can be required to limit discharges. A second way to reduce contamination is by treating the water. For example, chlorination minimizes microbiological contaminants. For another, carbon adsorption systems can reduce the levels of some organic chemicals. Top of Page Introduction The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), enacted in 1974, is the basis for protecting public drinking water systems from harmful contaminants. The Act directs the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop: (1) national primary and secondary drinking water regulations; (2) underground injection control regulations to protect underground sources of drinking water; and (3) groundwater protection grant programs. The Act permits these activities to be implemented by the States. Only the drinking water regulations are described here. The national primary drinking water regulations protect human health to the extent feasible, taking technology, treatment techniques, and costs into consideration. In addition, secondary drinking water regulations specify the maximum contaminant levels necessary to protect public welfare and deal primarily with contaminants affecting drinking water odor and appearance. These "aesthetics" standards are not federally enforceable and are issued only as guidelines for the States. Top of Page Establishing National Primary Drinking Water Standards The Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) is the maximum concentration of a chemical that is allowed in public drinking water systems. The MCL is established by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Currently there are fewer than 100 chemicals for which MCLs have been established; however, these represent chemicals that are thought to pose the most serious risk. The following discussion describes the way in which current standards have been established. Standards for the chemicals currently regulated, their potential health effects, and possible sources of these contaminants are given at the following EPA link: National Primary Drinking Water Standards The EPA guidance for establishing MCLs states that MCLs are enforceable standards and are to be set as close to the maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) (Health Goals) as is feasible and are based upon treatment technologies, costs (affordability) and other feasibility factors, such as availability of analytical methods, treatment technology and costs for achieving various levels of removal. The process of determining an MCL starts with an evaluation of the adverse effects caused by the chemical in question and the doses needed to cause such effects. The final result of this process is a safe dose (the dose thought to provide protection against adverse effects including a margin of safety), now called a Reference Dose (RfD) by the EPA. This evaluation is based on the results of animal experiments and the research results are extrapolated to humans using standard EPA methods. For chemicals that do not cause cancer, a MCLG is established by first converting the safe dose (RfD) to a water concentration. Then, this number is divided by five based on the assumption that exposure to the chemical through drinking water represents only one-fifth of the possible exposure to this substance. Other sources of exposure may be air, soil and food. In almost all cases, the MCLG value is the same one that is used as the MCL. For chemicals believed to cause cancer (known or probable humans carcinogens - EPA Class A or B), the MCLG is set at zero; i.e., no amount of chemical is considered acceptable. However, since zero cannot be measured, the MCL is based on the lowest concentration that can be measured on a routine basis. This is known as the Practical Quantitation Limit (PQL). Thus for known or probable carcinogens, the MCL is not a safe level but instead is the lowest measurable level. For chemicals that are possible cancer-causing agents (EPA Class C); i.e., there is some evidence that they may cause cancer but this is not very convincing, a value equivalent to the MCLG is calculated as if they were not carcinogens. Then this value is divided by a factor of ten to give the final MCL. This provides an additional margin of safety in case the chemical is later determined to be a carcinogen. For a few chemicals, the MCL approach is not used; instead water treatment programs are required. These chemicals are lead and copper and more information about how they are regulated can be found by clicking below on the name of the chemical of interest. Lead Copper Top of Page Establishing National Secondary Drinking Water Standards Unlike primary drinking water regulations, secondary drinking water regulations are not designed to protect public health. Instead, they are intended to help protect public welfare by establishing concentration limits for chemicals that cause undesirable taste, odor and color of the water or that cause staining or corrosion of fixtures that come into contact with the water. Current EPA secondary standards are provided at: National Secondary Drinking Water Standards Top of Page Future Standards and Regulation Development The 1996 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act specify a number of changes to the current law that will take effect in the next few years. One is a new risk-based contaminant selection process. The EPA must use three criteria to determine whether or not to regulate a contaminant: (1) that the contaminant adversely affects human health; (2) it is known or substantially likely to occur in public water systems with a frequency and at levels of public health concern; and (3) regulation of the contaminant presents a meaningful opportunity for health risk reduction. In short, the new provision makes risk prioritization dominant in selecting which contaminants to regulate. In 1998, and every 5 years thereafter, EPA will publish a list of contaminants which are not subject to any proposed or final national primary drinking water regulation but which are known or anticipated to occur in public water systems and may require regulation. In developing the list of potential contaminants, EPA must consult with the scientific community, allow for public comment, and consider the occurrence database. Starting in 2001, and every 5 years thereafter, EPA is required to determine whether or not to regulate at least 5 of the contaminants listed as potential contaminants for regulation. EPA is directed to make determinations for contaminants that present the greatest public health concern. In selecting such contaminants, EPA must take into consideration the effect of contaminants upon sensitive subpopulations, such as infants, children, pregnant women, the elderly, and individuals with a history of serious illness. After EPA makes a determination to regulate a contaminant it must publish an MCLG and final national primary drinking water regulation within 3 1/2 years. The status of EPA drinking water regulations is available at the website: Drinking Water Regulations For all future drinking water standards, the Act directs EPA to conduct a thorough cost-benefit analysis and provide comprehensive, informative, and understandable information to the public. This requires use of the "best available, peer-reviewed science and supporting studies". The standard setting process first defines a maximum contaminant level (MCL) or treatment technique standard based on affordable technology. Then the costs of that standard are compared to the expected health benefits to determine if they would be justified by the benefits. If not, then EPA may adjust an MCL to a level that "maximizes health risk reduction benefits at a cost that is justified by the benefits." MCLs must be set as close to MCLGs "as is feasible," except when EPA determines that the cost of a standard at that level are not justified by the benefits, or when certain "risk-risk" considerations apply. These "risk-risk" balancing situations require flexibility to "minimize the overall risk of adverse health effects" so that controlling the level of one contaminant does not increase the risk from another contaminant. In addition, EPA (after consultation with the Department of Health and Human Services) may issue interim regulations for any contaminant which poses an urgent threat to human health without making the usual "determination to regulate" and completing the cost-benefit analysis. However, a cost-benefit analysis and the required determination (to regulate or not) must be done within 3 years after the interim rule, and the rule must be repromulgated or revised if necessary. Top of Page Information About Drinking Water Systems EPA must issue regulations by August, 1998 that establish requirements for water systems to provide annual reports to all customers. These regulations must be developed in consultation with environmental groups, public interest groups, risk communication experts, and the States. The regulations must include a plainly worded explanation of the definition of MCLs and MCLGs, as well as plain language explanations of the health concerns associated with contaminants. The reports must contain information on the source of a water systems supply, the level of detected contaminants, information on the health effects of contaminants found in violation of the standard, and information on unregulated contaminants. Currently, EPA provides a website and hotline for consumers to obtain limited information on the violations and enforcement history of their drinking water supplier at: Drinking Water System Information Last updated 01/20/99 Top of Page Back to Laws, Regulations & Policies Chart Back to Toxicology Concepts Page Back to Home Page //////////////////////////////////////// This Congressional Research Service Report is made available to the public by THE COMMITTEE FOR THE NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT 1725 K Street, NW, Suite 212, Washington, D.C. 20006 (202) 530-5810 cnie@cnie.org Congressional Research Service Report for Congress Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1995: Overview of S. 1316, as Passed Mary Tiemann Specialist in Environmental Policy Environment and Natural Resources Policy Division Updated December 18, 1995 95-1110 ENR Summary On November 29, 1995, the Senate passed S. 1316, the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments of 1995, unanimously. The 1974 Act was last reauthorized in 1986. Both the House and Senate passed SDWA bills by wide margins in the past Congress, and strong interest in reauthorizing the Act continues in the 104th Congress. Many of the issues discussed in the SDWA debate, while specific to the Act, are of concern in the broader regulatory reform debate on unfunded Federal mandates and cost-benefit and risk analyses. Compliance with the increasing regulations under the 1986 amendments is proving difficult for States and public water systems, and the Act has become a popular target of complaints about unfunded mandates. Many believe the law gives States too little flexibility in implementing Federal requirements. Also, the Act is widely viewed as giving EPA insufficient flexibility to balance risk reduction benefits and costs when setting standards. Broad agreement also exists that the standard setting schedule mandated in 1986 is unrealistic and hampers EPA's ability to focus limited resources on regulating contaminants of greatest concern. To address these and other issues, a bipartisan group of Senators introduced S. 1316 on October 12, 1995. The Senate Environment and Public Works Committee held hearings on October 19, and reported S. 1316 on October 24 (S. Rept. 104-169). The bill authorizes grants for State loan funds to help communities comply with Federal drinking water mandates, allows EPA to consider overall risk reduction when setting standards, directs EPA to conduct benefit-cost analyses for new regulations, authorizes States to modify certain monitoring requirements, and establishes a voluntary source water protection program. To help small systems, S. 1316 increases States authority to grant conditional variances from SDWA standards, and establishes programs for technical assistance and capacity development. The bill would authorize appropriations through FY2003. This report briefly outlines selected provisions of S. 1316, as passed by the Senate. start here State Revolving Loan Funds The 1986 SDWA amendments required EPA to regulate 83 contaminants by 1989 and to regulate 25 additional contaminants every 3 years. Many new regulations i have entered into effect and more are pending. Although EPA reports that the added cost of complying with Federal drinking water standards should not be significant for the majority of the population (which is served by large public water systems), the costs may increase substantially for many of the Nation's 52,000 small public water systems (PWSs). To date, no Federal funds have been provided under this Act to help communities comply with its requirements. S. 1316, section 3, establishes a State Revolving Loan Fund (SRF) program to help public water systems finance improvements needed to comply with SDWA requirements. Patterned after the SRF program under the Clean Water Act (CWA), the bill provides grants to States to capitalize drinking water SRFs which States then use to make loans to public water systems. States must match at least 20 percent of the Federal grant. The bill allows a Governor to transfer up to 50 percent of the capitalization grant to the CWA SRF, or transfer an equivalent amount from the CWA SRF to the SDWA SRF. States may reserve up to 2 percent of their annual allotment to provide technical assistance to small systems (serving populations of 10,000 or fewer). Until a needs survey is completed, grants will be allotted to States using the formula for distributing State PWS supervision grants. SDWA SRFs may be used to provide loan and grant assistance for capital expenditures for: 1) projects that facilitate SDWA compliance (including training operators of these facilities), 2) consolidating systems, 3) upgrading systems, and 4) developing public water systems to replace private supplies that pose significant health threats. States may use up to 30 percent of their SRF allocation to provide grants or forgive loan principal to help economically disadvantaged communities. Up to 15 percent of a State's grant may be used to support source water protection and capacity development programs. S. 1316 authorizes appropriations of $600 million for FY1994 and $1 billion annually for FY1995 through FY2003 for SRF capitalization grants. Section 3 directs EPA to reserve from annual SRF appropriations: 1.5 percent for financial assistance to Indian Tribes; $10 million for health effects research on drinking water contaminants; $2 million, beginning with FY1997, to pay the costs of monitoring for unregulated contaminants; and no more than $10 million for technical assistance. Contaminant Selection The standard setting schedule established by the 1986 amendments was intended to increase the pace at which EPA regulated contaminants in drinking water. EPA has regulated the initial 83 contaminants specified by Congress except for arsenic, sulfate and radionuclides. To meet the first '25 every 3 years' requirement, EPA has proposed regulations for 13 contaminants including 12 disinfectants and disinfection byproducts (D/DBPs) and Cryptosporidium, while the remainder of the first set of 25 remains under study. EPA has been sued repeatedly for missing statutory deadlines, and many public water systems are also finding it difficult to comply with new requirements on time. Broad consensus has emerged that the current schedule is overly ambitious, does not prioritize risks effectively, and merits revision. Section 4 specifies a schedule for EPA to complete regulations for D/DBPs and Cryptosporidium . Section 4 also revokes the requirement that EPA regulate 25 contaminants every 3 years, and establishes a process for EPA to select and list contaminants for regulatory consideration based on occurrence and health effects. By 1996, EPA must publish a list of contaminants that may warrant regulation. EPA is required to develop a research plan for each listed contaminant to gain information on the health effects and occurrence of the contaminant and then to determine whether regulation is needed. Starting in 2001, EPA must make a regulatory decision for at least 5 listed contaminants every 5 years. EPA must then regulate those contaminants that occur at concentration levels and frequencies of public concern. EPA may promulgate an interim standard without first listing a contaminant if EPA determines that a contaminant presents an urgent threat to public health. Risk Assessment Section 5 amends the standard setting provisions of the Act; directs EPA to use sound, peer-reviewed science in developing regulations; and specifies how EPA must present health effects information to the public. EPA is required to conduct a health risk reduction and cost analysis for each drinking water regulation that contains a maximum contaminant level (MCL) or treatment technique and to seek public comment before proposing the regulation. The analysis must include: the benefits and costs of alternative MCLs or treatment techniques being considered, the incremental costs and benefits associated with each alternative MCL, the effects of the contaminant on the general population and sensitive subpopulations, any increased health risks associated with compliance, and other factors. This section authorizes appropriations of $35 million annually for EPA to conduct studies and analyses in support of regulations. Standard Setting SDWA currently directs EPA to set a maximum contaminant level goal (MCLG) at a level at which no known or anticipated adverse health effects occur and allows an adequate margin of safety. EPA is then to set an MCL as close to the MCLG as is "feasible" using the best technology available, taking costs into consideration. Legislative history directs EPA, when considering what is "feasible" to consider what is reasonably affordable for large metropolitan water systems. Because 80 percent of the population served by community water systems is served by large systems, this approach generally ensures that most people can receive high quality water at a reasonable cost. However, the remaining 20 percent of the population is served by small systems where economies of scale are absent, and compliance can impose high costs on households served by these systems. Another issue is that the law does not give EPA flexibility to select an MCL that is less than feasible but that might provide very similar health protection at a substantially lower cost. Nor is EPA able to take into consideration whether treatment techniques used to control certain contaminants may actually increase the risk posed by other contaminants. (For example, public water systems use disinfectants, like chlorine, to kill microbial contaminants that can cause illness; however, disinfection by-products may cause cancer.) Section 6 amends the standard setting provisions to give EPA authority to consider costs and benefits, including overall risk reduction benefits, when setting standards. EPA may set a standard at other than the feasible level if the feasible level would lead to an increase in health risks by increasing the concentration of other contaminants or by interfering with the treatment processes used to comply with other SDWA regulations. In such cases, the standards or treatment techniques must minimize the overall health risk. EPA may use this authority to consider overall risk reduction benefits when developing regulations for D/DBPs and Cryptosporidium. Section 6 also requires EPA, when proposing a regulation, to publish a determination as to whether or not the benefits of the standard justify the costs. If EPA determines that the benefits of a standard do not justify the costs, EPA may promulgate a standard that maximizes health risk reduction benefits at a cost that is justified by the benefits. EPA may not use this authority to set less stringent standards if the benefits experienced by persons served by large systems would justify the cost to the systems, unless the contaminant is found almost exclusively in small systems. Nor may EPA use this authority to develop regulations for D/DBPs or Cryptosporidium. An EPA determination that the benefits of a standard do or do not justify the costs can only be set aside by a court (as part of a review of a final regulation) if it finds EPA's actions are arbitrary and capricious. Sections 7, 8, and 9 give EPA added flexibility, time and instruction for developing rules for arsenic, radon, and sulfate. Section 7 gives EPA until 2001 to revise the existing arsenic standard, and directs EPA to adopt an arsenic research plan. (EPA has asked a Federal court for more time to develop this overdue rule.) Section 8 directs EPA to promulgate a radon standard within 180 days of enactment, and to set the standard at 3,000 picocuries per liter (pCi/l). (The proposed standard is 300 pCi/l.) EPA may revise this standard if scientific studies warrant it, and the revised standard can be no stricter than needed to reduce the risk from radon in drinking water to the risk posed by radon in outdoor air. Section 9 directs EPA to promulgate a sulfate regulation within 4 years, and authorizes EPA to allow systems to use public notification and to provide alternative water supplies to sensitive populations in lieu of centralized treatment. Sulfate has relatively minor health effects but is one of the 83 specified substances that EPA must regulate. (For more information on these contaminant regulations, see Environmental Protection Agency FY1996 Appropriations: Analyses of House-Passed Riders, CRS Report 95-966 ENR.) Section 11 extends the time allowed before a newly promulgated regulation becomes effective from the current 18 months to 3 years. As much as 2 additional years may be allowed where the time is needed to make capital improvements. Small Systems As discussed above, EPA generally sets standard that are feasible (i.e., affordable) for large public water systems (serving populations of 10,000 or more). However, just 6 percent of community water systems are large, and 90 percent of these systems serve fewer than 3,300 persons. Many small systems may have difficulty affording treatment technologies needed to comply with SDWA regulations. Another problem facing small systems is that they often lack the technical, managerial, and financial capacity to comply with monitoring and other SDWA requirements. S. 1316 contains several provisions intended to improve the compliance capacity of small systems. Technology. Section 12 revises SDWA's standard setting provisions to require that when EPA promulgates a regulation, the Agency must also issue guidance or regulations describing all treatment technologies for the contaminant that are feasible with the use of the best available technology, considering cost, for small systems serving: between 10,000 and 3,300 persons, 3,300 and 500 persons, and 500 and 25 persons. Section 10 directs EPA, when proposing the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, to also propose a regulation describing filtration technologies that are feasible for systems serving 3,300 or fewer persons. Variances. The law currently allows a State to grant a variance if the source water prevents a system from complying with a standard. However, the variance can be granted only after the system has installed the appropriate treatment technology and the water still fails to meet the standard. Section 13 authorizes States to grant variances on the condition that a system will install the best available technology. Section 14 further amends the Act's variance provisions to allow small systems to receive variances if they cannot afford to comply with SDWA regulations. States may grant to a system serving 10,000 or fewer persons a variance from a drinking water regulation if a system cannot afford to comply with the regulation and the State determines that the variance will adequately protect public health. To receive a variance, a system must install technology that EPA finds is affordable for small systems. Variances may not be granted from regulations for microbial contaminants. Technical Assistance. Several other provisions aim to increase the compliance capacity of small systems. Section 12 directs EPA to make grants to institutes of higher education to establish at least 5 small public water system technology assistance centers. Section 14 authorizes funds for technical assistance. Section 15 directs States to ensure that new systems demonstrate technical, managerial, and financial capacity to comply with SDWA regulations and directs States to develop capacity development strategies. Section 16 requires that systems that receive SRF assistance may be operated only by persons that are trained and certified. These requirements are not imposed on systems that do not receive funding. Source Water Quality Protection Partnerships Currently, the Act has provisions to encourage protection of wellhead areas and sole source aquifers. In keeping with the polluter pays principle and the adage that an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure, many stakeholders in the SDWA debate would like Congress to increase the Act's emphasis on pollution prevention. EPA, public water suppliers, and environmental groups argue that source water protection can be the most cost-effective way to protect and improve drinking water quality. Others, including some agricultural interests, are concerned that any such provisions might impose new restrictions on land use activities. Many stakeholders agree that States and local governments should play lead roles in this matter. Section 17 authorizes a new source water protection program based on voluntary partnerships between State and local governments. States may delineate source water areas for public water systems and conduct vulnerability assessments in priority areas. Also, States may establish source water quality partnership petition programs under which a community water system or local government may submit a petition to the State requesting assistance in developing a voluntary partnership to: 1) reduce the presence of contaminants in drinking water; 2) receive financial or technical assistance; and 3) develop a long-term source water protection strategy. States may use up to 10 percent of their annual SRF capitalization grant for projects recommended under the petition program. This section authorizes appropriations of such sums as may be necessary for EPA to make grants to States to cover up to 50 percent of the costs of administering this program. Monitoring Section 19 provides for increased monitoring flexibility at the Federal and State level. EPA is directed to review and, if necessary, revise existing monitoring requirements for at least 12 contaminants within 2 years. Additionally, States may establish alternative monitoring requirements for any regulation that does not address microbial contaminants. Alternative State requirements must ensure compliance with and enforcement of regulations, and may take effect only after completion of one cycle of monitoring under Federal regulations. For certain contaminants, States may waive quarterly monitoring requirements for small systems where contaminants are not detected in the first quarterly sample. This section also directs EPA to establish a program for monitoring unregulated contaminants, and a national drinking water database that includes information on the occurrence of regulated and unregulated contaminants in public water systems. Other provisions of the bill attempt to fill various regulatory gaps. For example, S. 1316 requires States to adopt authority for administrative penalties for violations of State regulations, requires the Food and Drug Administration to issue bottled water standards for contaminants regulated under SDWA, and sets limits on the amount of lead that may leach from plumbing fixtures. Conclusion S. 1316 reflects a bipartisan effort to address regulatory reform and public health concerns. The legislation reduces the regulatory burden imposed on States and public water systems, increases State authority and flexibility, provides financial assistance for unfunded mandates, and directs EPA to consider costs and benefits when setting new standards. It also gives EPA greater flexibility to target contaminants of concern and provides funds to advance health effects research. Although most parties agree that SDWA should be amended, support for S. 1316 is mixed. EPA has given its qualified support, but the Administrator is concerned that EPA would not be able to act quickly when a contaminant presents an urgent threat to public health. EPA would also like stronger pollution prevention provisions. Environmental groups are concerned that S. 1316 provides too many opportunities for systems to be exempt from SDWA requirements and that too much time is allowed for regulating various contaminants. A coalition representing States, cities, rural communities, and drinking water supply and research groups strongly supports S. 1316. The reauthorization debate now shifts to the House. This document was produced by the Congressional Research Service. The Committee for the National Institute for the Environment (CNIE) has made these reports available to the public at large, but the CRS is not affiliated with the CNIE or the National Library for the Environment. Committee for the National Institute for the Environment 1725 K Street, NW, Suite 212, Washington, D.C. 20006-1401 Phone (202) 530- 5810 cnie@cnie.org Fax (202) 628-4311 //////////////////////////////////////////////// Background: SDWA Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Background The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) was established by Congress in 1974 to protect human health from contaminants in drinking water, and to prevent contamination of existing groundwater supplies. The SDWA was extensively amended in 1986 and also in 1996. Drinking water standards: A primary focus of the SDWA is on setting national contaminant-based drinking water standards, including both primary and secondary standards. Primary drinking water standards are intended to address adverse health effects, and consist of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are non-enforceable goals, and maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), which are enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible, considering cost and feasibility of attainment. Secondary drinking water standards address general public welfare, such as the odor or appearance of drinking water, and are also non-enforceable. The National Primary Drinking Water Regulations appear at 40 CFR Part 141. "Contaminant" is defined by the SDWA to include any physical, chemical, biological, or radiological substance. Currently regulated contaminants include bacteriological contaminants, turbidity, fluorides, certain pesticides, and certain heavy metals. Under the 1996 Amendments, EPA must identify a list of possible additional contaminants to regulate, based on the likelihood of their occurrence in public drinking water systems, and must evaluate at least 5 contaminants every 5 years for possible regulation. Under the SDWA, only public water systems are subject to the drinking water standards.. A "public water system" is one that provides piped water for human consumption and has at least 15 service connections or regularly serves at least 25 persons. Regulations require these systems to meet MCLs and/or to use certain treatment techniques to protect against adverse health effects. Regulations include prescribed testing, record keeping (for example, at least 5 years for bacteriological sampling results and at least 10 years for chemical sampling results), reporting, and timely notification of failure to meet applicable drinking water standards. Underground Injection Control: The Underground Injection Control Program is designed to protect usable aquifers from contaminations migrating from injection wells. The Program requires a permit before the placement of fluids into a bored, drilled, driven, or dug well (excluding surface lagoons). Regulations governing the Underground Injection Control (UIC) Program of the SDWA are contained in 40 CFR Part 144-148. The UIC program establishes permit conditions - including design, operating, inspection, and monitoring requirements - for five classes of underground injection wells: start here Class I wells are used to inject hazardous waste beneath the lowest formation containing a underground source of drinking water within one-quarter mile of the well bore. Class II wells are used for oil and natural gas recovery. Class III wells are used for mineral extraction. Class IV wells (now prohibited under RCRA) are used to inject hazardous waste into or above a formation that contains an underground source of drinking water within one-quarter mile of the well bore, or any other wells used to dispose of hazardous waste. Class V wells are all wells other than Classes I-IV. Injection wells that manage hazardous wastes must also meet RCRA land disposal restrictions standards. SDWA intended that UIC management be handled by states, and most states have received delegated authority to manage Federal UIC program requirements. However, in a few cases where states have not demonstrated an ability to manage the program, the EPA will administer it in lieu of the state. Standards for remediation: Maximum Contaminant Levels established under the SDWA attain additional importance due to their frequent incorporation into site cleanup programs, such as Superfund. Specifically, SDWA Maximum Contaminant Levels can be used to establish site cleanup criteria if they are identified as Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs), through the process established by CERCLA, and detailed in 40 CFR 300.400(g). Other provisions: The SDWA also provides for a Federally-implemented Sole Source Aquifer program. This program prohibits Federal funds from being expended on projects that may contaminate the sole or principal source of drinking water for a given area. In addition, the SDWA provides for a State-implemented Wellhead Protection program, designed to protect drinking water wells and drinking water recharge areas. EPAs Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, answers questions and distributes guidance pertaining to SDWA standards. The Hotline operates from 9:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. ET, excluding Federal holidays. back to Background page Related topics in ChemAlliance: SDWA Regulatory Tour Program office links: Office of Air and Radiation Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water Regulations: 40 CFR 82 40 CFR 141 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations 40 CFR 144-148 Underground Injection Control (UIC) 40 CFR 300.400(g) ARAR process under CERCLA Related sites: EPA Plain English Guide to the Clean Air Act Details on 1996 Amendments Information provided on this site is subject to certain limitations, so please read our disclaimer! Send mail to johnsons@battelle.org with questions or comments about this web site. Copyright 1999 Last modified: October 18, 1999 ////////////////////////////////////////////////// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Reclamation / Laws and Regulations / Chronology / Category -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 (PL 93-523) as amended by: The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 CFR 141 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations Implementation, 40 CFR142 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 CFR 143 This is the primary Federal legislation protecting drinking water supplied by public water systems (those serving more than 25 people). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is lead agency and is mandated to set standards for drinking water. EPA establishes national standards of which the states are responsible for enforcing. The act provides for the establishment of primary regulations for the protection of the public health and secondary regulations relating to the taste, odor, and appearance of drinking water. Primary drinking water regulations, by definition, include either a maximum contaminant level (MCL) or, when a MCL is not economically or technologically feasible, a prescribed treatment technique which would prevent adverse health effects to humans. An MCL is the permissible level of a contaminant in water that is delivered to any user of a public water system. Primary and secondary drinking water regulations are stated in 40 CFR 141 and 143, respectively. As amended in 1986, the EPA is required to set maximum contaminant levels for 83 contaminants deemed harmful to humans (with specific deadlines). It also has authority over groundwater. Water agencies are required to monitor water to ensure it meets standards. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Explanations are merely to acquaint you with the law and are not meant as legal interpretations. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ////////////////////////////////////////////////////// Safe Drinking Water Act The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), celebrating its 25th anniversary this year, is the main federal law that ensures the quality of Americans' drinking water. Under SDWA, EPA sets standards for drinking water quality and oversees the states, localities, and water suppliers who implement those standards. You can read the entire SDWA online. On August 6, 1996, President Clinton signed Amendments to SDWA. The 1996 Amendments emphasize sound science and risk-based standard setting, small water supply system flexibility and technical assistance, community-empowered source water assessment and protection, public right-to-know, and water system infrastructure assistance through a multi-billion-dollar state revolving loan fund. More detailed summaries of the SDWA Amendments of 1996 are available organized by section or theme. If you would like to see the full text version of the 1996 Amendments, please select this link. Below, you will find a list of SDWA requirements, and links to information on those requirements that EPA has completed. You may also want to review summaries of meetings related to implementation of SDWA. Statutory Requirements in the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 (and a few other related deadlines) 1997 ~ 1998 ~ 1999 ~ 2000 ~ 2001 ~ 2002 ~ 2003 ~ 2005 . DATE DUE EPA ACTION ITEM 1 9 9 7 February 2, 1997 Report to Congress -- Drinking Water Infrastructure Needs Survey (including Indian Tribes) Develop plan for additional research on cancer risks from exposure to low levels of arsenic (consult with NAS, other stakeholders) Develop study plan to support development of the DBPs/microbial pathogen rules (in consultation with the Secretaries of HHS and Agriculture) Complete review of existing State capacity development efforts and publish information to assist States and PWSs with capacity development efforts Initiate partnership with States, PWSs, and the public to develop information for States on recommended operator certification requirements (Released 2/28/97) Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) Guidelines (no statutory deadline) (Agreement 2/28/97) Contract with NAS to conduct peer-reviewed assessment of the health risk reduction benefits associated with various radon mitigation alternatives (no statutory deadline) (Released 3/12/97) Develop allotment formula for States based on 1997 Drinking Water Needs Survey (no statutory deadline) August 6, 1997 Issue guidelines for alternative monitoring requirements Guidance establishing procedures for State application for ground water protection grants Publish list of technologies that meet the Surface Water Treatment Rule for systems serving 10,000-3,300 persons, 3,300-500 persons, and 500-25 persons Guidance to States for developing source water assessment programs Guidance to States to assist in developing source water petition programs (STATES) Submit to EPA a list of community water systems and NTNC water systems that have a history of significant noncompliance and reasons for noncompliance 1 9 9 8 January 1, 1998 (STATES) Submit to EPA first [annual] compliance report February 6, 1998 Publish a list of contaminants not subject to any proposed or final national primary drinking water regulation (must include sulfate). Publish information to assist States in developing affordability criteria. Publish information on recommended operator certification requirements, resulting from partnership with States, public water systems, and the public July 1, 1998 Issue first [annual] report summarizing and evaluating State compliance reports August 6, 1998 Publish guidelines for small system water conservation programs Promulgate regulation on consumer confidence reports Review and revise as necessary existing monitoring requirements for not fewer than 12 contaminants Publish guidance on variance technologies for existing regulations for systems serving 10,000-3,300 persons, 3,300-500 persons, and 500-25 persons Promulgate regulations for variances and exemptions Publish list of technologies that achieve compliance for existing rules (except SWTR) for systems serving 10,000-3,300, 3,300-500, 500-25 Publish guidance on capacity development describing legal authorities and other means to ensure that new Community Water Systems and Non-Transient, Non-Community Water Systems demonstrate capacity Conduct waterborne disease occurrence studies (with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention) (WATER SUPPLIERS) End of transition period for water suppliers determined to be public water system as a result of modifications to Section 1401(4) (constructed conveyances) November 1998 Promulgate Stage I Disinfectants and Disinfection Byproducts Rule Promulgate Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule 1 9 9 9 February 1999 Complete sulfate study with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to establish a reliable dose-response relationship Publish guidelines specifying minimum standards for certification and recertification of water system operators Publish health risk reduction benefits and cost analysis for potential radon standards (STATES) Deadline for submission of programs for source water assessments August 6, 1999 Report to Congress on State ground water protection programs Propose radon standard Establish National Contaminant Occurrence Data Base Promulgate final regulation establishing criteria for a monitoring program for unregulated contaminants September 1999 UIC Class V study (judicial deadline) October 1999 Final determination on whether States have legal authorities or other means in place and are implementing to ensure new system capacity. (for puposes of DWSRF witholding determination) UIC Class V rule (judicial deadline) December 1999 Promulgate rule on public notification 2 0 0 0 January 1, 2000 Propose standard for arsenic August 2000 Promulgate a regulation for filter backwash recycling within the treatment process of a PWSS, unless addressed in SWTR Report to Congress on DWSRF transfer of funds Promulgate final radon standard Conduct studies to identify subpopulations at greater risk and report to Congress October 2000 Determine if States have met 1419 requirements related to capacity development strategy (for purpose of DWSRF witholding determinations) November 2000 Promulgate Final LT1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule Promulgate final rule on radionuclides (judicial deadline) Promulgate final rule on ground water determining when disinfection is necessary (EPA schedule) 2 0 0 1 January 1, 2001 Promulgate final standard for arsenic February 2001 2nd Needs Survey Report to Congress 2nd Needs Survey for Indian Tribes August 2001 Determine State compliance with operator certification guidelines for purposes of DWSRF witholding Make determinations of whether or not to regulate at least 5 contaminants from contaminant candidate list (STATES) Report to EPA on success of enforcement mechanisms and assistance efforts in capacity development November 2001 (STATES) Complete local source water assessments With FY 2003 Budget Report to Congress -- Evaluation of effectiveness of State DWSRF loan funds 2 0 0 2 May 2002 Promulgate Stage II Disinfection Byproducts Rule Promulgate LT2 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (EPA schedule) Promulgate Phase II rule on UIC Class V wells September 2002 (STATES) Submit publically-available report to Governors on efficacy of State capacity development strategy and progress in implementation 2 0 0 3 May 2003 (STATES) Extension deadline for States to complete local source water assessments August 2003 Propose MCLG and national primary drinking water regulation for any contaminant selected for regulation from contaminant candidate list 2 0 0 5 February 2005 Final MCLG and rule for any contaminant selected for regulation from contaminant candidate list 3rd Drinking Water Needs Survey for States and Tribes Search EPA safewater home Water Comments revised October 13, 1999 http://www.epa.gov/safewater/sdwa/sdwa.html ///////////////////////////////////// General Description of Major Statutes Safe Drinking Water Act -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Oringinally Published in: EPA Office of Compliance Sector Notebook Project Profile of the Fabricated Metal Products Industry September 1995 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Office of Compliance Office of Enforcement and Compliance Assurance U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 401 M St., SW (MC 2221-A) Washington, DC 20460 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- important here General The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) mandates that EPA establish regulations to protect human health from contaminants in drinking water. The law authorizes EPA to develop national drinking water standards and to create a joint Federal-State system to ensure compliance with these standards. The SDWA also directs EPA to protect underground sources of drinking water through the control of underground injection of liquid wastes. EPA has developed primary and secondary drinking water standards under its SDWA authority. EPA and authorized States enforce the primary drinking water standards, which are, contaminant-specific concentration limits that apply to certain public drinking water supplies. Primary drinking water standards consist of maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs), which are non-enforceable health-based goals, and maximum contaminant levels (MCLs), which are enforceable limits set as close to MCLGs as possible, considering cost and feasibility of attainment. The SDWA Underground Injection Control (UIC) program (40 CFR Parts 144-148) is a permit program which protects underground sources of drinking water by regulating five classes of injection wells. UIC permits include design, operating, inspection, and monitoring requirements. Wells used to inject hazardous wastes must also comply with RCRA corrective action standards in order to be granted a RCRA permit, and must meet applicable RCRA land disposal restrictions standards. The UIC permit program is primarily State-enforced, since EPA has authorized all but a few States to administer the program. The SDWA also provides for a Federally-implemented Sole Source Aquifer program, which prohibits Federal funds from being expended on projects that may contaminate the sole or principal source of drinking water for a given area, and for a State-implemented Wellhead Protection program, designed to protect drinking water wells and drinking water recharge areas. EPA's Safe Drinking Water Hotline, at (800) 426-4791, answers questions and distributes guidance pertaining to SDWA standards. The Hotline operates from 9:00 a.m. through 5:30 p.m., EST, excluding Federal holidays. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Contacts for Available Sector Notebooks: The Sector Notebooks were developed by the EPA Office of Compliance. Particular questions regarding the Sector Notebook Project in general can be directed to the EPA Work Assignment Managers: Gregory Waldrip U.S. EPA Office of Compliance 401 M St., SW (2223-A) Washington, DC 20460 (202) 564-7024 ///////////////////////////////////////// OEPA Environmental Law Summary: Safe Drinking Water Act Purpose and Organization In 1974 Congress enacted the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) to manage potential contamination threats to groundwater. The act instructed EPA to establish a national program to prevent underground injections of contaminated fluids that would endanger drinking water sources. Primary drinking water standards promulgated under the SDWA apply to drinking water "at the tap" as delivered by public water supply systems. As such, the standards apply directly to those DOE facilities that meet the definition of a public water supply system (e.g., the DOE Oak Ridge Reservation is a public water supply system because it provides water to the City of Oak Ridge). Of equal significance to DOE is that the drinking water standards are used to determine groundwater protection regulations under a number of other statutes (e.g., RCRA). Therefore, many of the SDWA requirements apply to DOE activities, especially cleanup of contaminated sites and storage and disposal of materials containing radionuclides, inorganic chemicals, organic chemicals, and hazardous wastes. Section 1447 of the SDWA states that each federal agency having jurisdiction over a federally owned or maintained public water system must comply with all federal, state, and local requirements; administrative authorities; and processes and sanctions regarding the provision of safe drinking water. Sections 1412, 1414, and 1445(a) of the SDWA authorize drinking water regulations and specific operating procedures for public water systems. Public water systems, as defined in 40 CFR Part 141.2, provide piped water for human consumption and have at least 15 connections or regularly serve at least 25 people. Public water systems are either: community water systems: public water systems that serve at least 15 connections used by year-round residents or regularly serve at least 25 year-round residents; non-transient non-community water systems: public water systems that are not community water systems but that regularly serve at least the same 25 people for six months per year (e.g., workplaces and hospitals); or non-community water systems: all other water systems (e.g., campgrounds and gas stations). National Primary Drinking Water Regulations The SDWA requires EPA to establish National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs) for contaminants that may cause adverse public health effects. The regulations include both mandatory levels [Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)] and nonenforceable health goals [Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs)] for each included contaminant. MCLGs have extra significance because they can be used under Superfund as Applicable or Relevant and Appropriate Requirements (ARARs) in NPL cleanups. The 1986 SDWA amendments required EPA to apply future NPDWRs to both community and non-transient non-community water systems when it evaluated and revised current regulations. The first case in which this was applied was the final rule on July 8, 1987 (52 FR 25690). At that time NPDWRs were promulgated for certain synthetic volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and applied to non-transient non-community water systems as well as community water systems. This rulemaking also clarified that non-transient non-community water systems were not subject to MCLs that were promulgated before July 8, 1987. Future NPDWR standards will apply to non-transient non-community water systems because of concern for the long-term exposure of a stable population. It is important to note that EPA's decision to apply future NPDWRs to non-transient non-community water systems may have a significant impact on those DOE facilities that operate their own drinking water systems. Underground Injection Control Another provision of the SDWA established programs to prevent contamination of underground sources of drinking water by underground injection of contaminated fluids. Prohibitions mandated by the Hazardous and Solid Waste Amendments (HSWA) to the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) on the underground injection of hazardous wastes were promulgated on July 26, 1988 (53 FR 28118). This rule amended existing Underground Injection Control (UIC) regulations as they pertained to hazardous waste injection. It also codified at 40 CFR Part 148 the applicable sections of 40 CFR Part 268, EPA's regulatory framework for implementing the land disposal restrictions. The direct impact of UIC regulations on DOE has diminished with the cessation of the hydrofracture project in Oak Ridge, but the requirements are still important in governing the plugging and abandonment of wells used in some past practices. States have primary enforcement authority for the SDWA, although if states do not properly enforce SDWA requirements, EPA will assume the authority to do so. The federal government provides funds to assist in state enforcement of the Act. In certain circumstances states may consider cost, benefits, alternatives, public interest, and the protection of human health and the environment in granting variances and exemptions from the national regulation. For example, many of the regulations affecting groundwater provide for exemptions, variances, or alternate concentration limits. Thus, if DOE believes that direct application of a drinking water standard for groundwater protection is not justified on the basis of expected risk to the public at a specific site, DOE may request an exemption, variance, or alternate concentration limit. SDWA Reauthorization The SDWA amendments were signed into law by President Clinton on August 6, 1996 (Pub. L. 104-182). A brief summary of these amendments will be provided as soon as the new amendments have been reviewed to assess their impact on DOE. To obtain a copy of the new law, please go to Thomas, Legislative Information on the Internet, select "List of Public Laws" under "Browse" and go to the appropriate public law number. Regulations implementing the SDWA are found in Title 40 of the CFR, Chapter I, Subchapter D. Parts 124 and 141 through 148 of Subchapter D contain regulations important to DOE. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Posted September 5, 1996. DOE Office of Environmental Policy and Assistance ////////////////////////////////////////////// On August 6, 1996, President Clinton signed the Reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act, bringing to a successful conclusion years of work on the part of water professionals and a broad range of public interest groups throughout the nation. This new law strikes a balance among federal, state, local, urban, rural, large and small water systems in a manner that improves the protection of public health and brings reason and good science to the regulatory process. The major elements of the new law include: The law updates the standard-setting process by focusing regulations on contaminants known to pose greater public health risks. It replaces the current law's demand for 25 new standards every three years with a new process based on occurrence, relative risk and cost-benefit considerations. It also requires EPA to select at least five new candidate contaminants to consider for regulation every five years. EPA is directed to require public water systems to provide customers with annual "Consumer Confidence Reports" in newspapers and by direct mail. The reports must list levels of regulated contaminants along with Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) and Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs), along with plainly worded definitions of both. The reports must also include a plainly worded statement of the health concerns for any contaminants for which there has been a violation, describe the utility's sources of drinking water and provide data on unregulated contaminants for which monitoring is required, including Cryptosporidium and radon. EPA must establish a toll-free hot line customers can call to get additional information. EPA is required to publish guidelines for states to develop water source assessment programs that delineate protection areas and assess contamination risks. A source water petition program for voluntary, incentive-based partnerships among public water systems and others to reduce contamination in source water is authorized. The law establishes a new State Revolving Loan Fund (SRLF) of $1 billion per year to provide loans to public water systems to comply with the new SDWA. It also requires states to allocate 15 percent of the SRLF to systems serving 10,000 or fewer people unless no eligible projects are available for loans. It also allows states to jointly administer SDWA and Clean Water Act loan programs and transfer up to 33 percent between the two accounts. EPA is required to identify technologies that are affordable for small systems to comply with drinking water regulations. Technical assistance funds and Small System Technical Assistance Centers are authorized to meet the training and technical needs of small systems. States are authorized to grant variances for compliance with drinking water regulations for systems serving 3,300 or fewer persons. EPA is required to publish certification guidelines for operators of community and nontransient noncommunity public water systems. States that do not have operator certification programs that meet the requirements of the guidelines will lose 20 percent of their SRLF grant. States must ensure that all new systems have compliance capacity and that all current systems maintain capacity, or lose 20 percent of their SRLF grant. Although EPA will continue to provide policy, regulations and guidance, state governments will now have more regulatory flexibility -- allowing for improved communication between water providers and their local regulators. Increased collaboration will result in solutions that work better and are more fully supported by the regulated community. States that have a source water assessment program may adopt alternative monitoring requirements to provide permanent monitoring relief for public water systems in accordance with EPA guidance. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- RETURN TO BLUE THUMB HOME PAGE RETURN TO PUBLIC AFFAIRS PAGE RETURN TO AWWA HOME PAGE -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Copyright 1997 American Water Works Association (AWWA). All rights reserved. AWWA encourages use of material from its World Wide Web pages, within the provisions of its Internet Materials Use Guidelines. ////////////////////////////////////// American Public Health Association's FACT SHEET Safe Drinking Water Act Reauthorization (P.L. 104-182) important here -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The American Public Health Association supports the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 as signed into law by President Clinton. This bill includes provisions which protect the well-being of children and at-risk populations, ensures community right to know, and encourages the collection of data which help to improve the quality and efficiency of community drinking water systems. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) Amendments cleared the Senate 98-0 and passed the House 392-30 on August 2, 1996. President Clinton signed S. 1316 into law (P.L. 104-182) on Tuesday, August 6th and the law becomes effective immediately. The SDWA will not have to be reauthorized until 2003. Basic Facts About Safe Drinking Water Act: The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 was enacted in response to outbreaks of waterborne disease and increasing chemical contamination of public water sources. SDWA authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to establish federal drinking water standards. These maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) help to keep to a minimum the presence of dangerous chemicals and waterborne bacteria and viruses in the public's drinking water. SDWA helps to reduce costs associated with waterborne illness and disease by ensuring that source water is protected and that drinking water is kept free of pollutants. In 1993, cryptosporidium in the public drinking water caused 100 deaths and illness in 400,000 individuals in Milwaukee. The overall cost associated with this cryptosporidiosis outbreak was estimated at over $54 million in lost productivity and health care expenditures. SDWA Reauthorization (P.L. 104-182) Protects Public Health: Community Right to Know The law requires that water systems inform consumers on an annual basis about the level of regulated contaminants detected in tap water, what the enforceable MCLs and health goals are for each contaminant and what those levels mean, the levels of unregulated contaminants which are required to be monitored, data regarding the system's compliance with health standards, and information on health effects of regulated contaminants which have been found at levels exceeding enforceable standards. In addition, consumers will be notified of the health effects of enforceable health standards which are below MCLs but where there may be significant health concern. Waterborne Disease Surveillance and Occurrence Database The law includes a requirement for EPA and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to conduct waterborne disease surveillance studies to determine the causes and appropriate interventions for waterborne illness to report the findings of these pilot studies, and to estimate the national occurrence of waterborne disease. It calls for training and education of health care providers and a public awareness campaign regarding waterborne disease and symptoms that may be caused by microbial waterborne contaminants. In addition, the development of a national database on both regulated and unregulated tap water contaminants has been authorized. Identification of Risk for Vulnerable Populations The new law requires EPA to conduct a series of studies to identify groups within the general population that are at greater risk than the general population for adverse health effects from exposure to tap water contaminants. Populations to be examined include infants, children, pregnant women, older Americans, and individuals with a history of serious illness. EPA will consider the health effects of disinfection by-products and microbial contaminants, and research the mechanisms of toxicity for tap water contaminants. General Health Effects Research and Data Collection P.L. 104-182 directs the EPA to conduct additional and new health effects research in the areas of arsenic, sulfate, and radon. Additionally, EPA's authority to collect information on drinking water contamination has been expanded. EPA can require monitoring for up to 30 unregulated pollutants including both chemical and microbial contaminants. System Capacity Development Many of the nation's water systems do not have the necessary resources to comply with federal law nor are they able to fund capital improvements to their facilities. P.L. 104-182 authorizes a new, $8.6 billion for a state revolving fund which will help states establish programs to assure that systems have the capacity to meet federal standards. For states to receive full funding, they must have both capacity development and operator certification programs. These provisions help to ensure the safety of drinking water and the viability of the nation's water systems. The Safety of Public Drinking Water is Essential: Since its inception, the SDWA has protected individuals and communities from dangerous microbial contaminants and harmful pollutants in the public drinking water supply. This reauthorization of SDWA works toward guaranteeing safer drinking water for all. Although under the SDWA human longevity has increased and environmental threats to public health have been reduced, significant microbial and chemical contaminants in public water supplies remain. APHA believes that P.L. 104-182 will help improve the nation's drinking water supply and will help reduce waterborne disease. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- August 21, 1996 Mona Rani Top of the Page Back to Fact Sheets //////////////////////////////////////////////// Reauthorized Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) October 1996 Update #1 This is the first in a series of information sheets on the 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments (SDWAA). This first update will provide an overview of the key changes in the SDWA. Some of these elements became effective when the act was signed while others require the proposal and adoption of new regulations. Keeping consumers informed about the state of their drinking water is reflected in following requirements: Annual reporting To ensure that communities have more information about their water systems, all community water systems will issue an annual report. This report will provide information about the system's source water and level of contaminants in the water provided. By August 1998, EPA will issue regulations on these annual reports. Each year the States will provide information about all violations of the national primary drinking water standards. This information will be readily available to the public. Immediate Public Notification For any violation of a national drinking water standard that has the potential for adverse health effects, systems must notify persons who receive water from the system of the violation within 24 hours of the occurrence. The following changes provide EPA with more flexibility to establish priorities for developing new regulations and emphasize development of regulations based on better scientific information. Adding New Contaminants to the list of Regulated Contaminants EPA now has the flexibility to determine whether or not to regulate a contaminant using three criteria: 1) does the contaminant adversely affect human health?; 2) is it known or is it likely to occur in public water supplies at levels that would cause a public health concern?; and 3) does the regulation of this chemical present a meaningful opportunity for health risk reduction? At least 5 chemicals must be considered for regulation every 5 years. Monitoring Requirements for Unregulated Contaminants By August 1999 and every 5 years thereafter, EPA will issue regulations establishing criteria for monitoring unregulated contaminants. The states may develop a reduced monitoring plan for small systems (under 10,000 people) which needs to be approved by EPA. Cost-Benefit Analysis for new standards For all future drinking water standards, EPA will conduct a thorough cost-benefit analysis and provide this information to the public. In addition, after defining a new maximum contaminant level (MCL), EPA will determine whether the costs of the standard would be justified by the benefits. If not, the MCL may be adjusted to a level that provides maximum health protection at a reasonable cost. Smaller systems who may be financially pressed to meet these new standards may be granted a variance. The SDWAA allows EPA to gather information from water systems on both regulated and unregulated contaminants to help determine compliance; whether or not certain contaminants should be regulated; and provide information on source water protection. National Occurrence Database EPA will develop a national occurrence database covering regulated and unregulated contaminants. This database will be established by 1999. More flexibility in gathering information from Water Systems EPA can now require systems to provide information on individual system compliance activities without a legal order. This provision also allows EPA to gather data from a system on contaminants that are not currently required to be reported. Many of the changes in SDWAA have a financial impact on the drinking water systems, particularly small systems. Therefore, provisions were included to provide assistance to these small systems. Small System Technologies By 1998, EPA will have identified technologies that are appropriate and affordable for various sizes of small systems that enable these systems to comply with standards. If appropriate technologies do not exist, a "variance technology" must be identified or variances will be decided upon by the state or EPA depending on the size of the system. Monitoring relief States may exempt systems serving under 10,000 people from quarterly monitoring, if samples are taken during a time when the water source is most vulnerable to the contaminant and the sample fails to show the presence of that contaminant. This does not apply to microbiological contaminants, their indicators, disinfectants or disinfection or corrosion by-products. States with an approved source water assessment program may implement a contaminant specific reduced monitoring program. EPA's enforcement procedures have been streamlined, cutting out repetitive steps. This will allow EPA to address systems in non-compliance more rapidly. Proposed Order Requirement removed EPA is no longer required to prepare a proposed Administrative Order and issue a public notice informing the community about the opportunity for a public hearing. Administrative Penalty Amounts Increased The maximum administrative penalty for violating an administrative order has been raised to $25,000. EPA Orders cover more requirements EPA can now enforce all "applicable requirements of the title" and not just the national drinking water regulations. These are defined as the requirements of Sections 1412, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1417, 1441 or 1445; regulations, schedules or requirements regarding these sections; and requirements of an EPA approved state program. Systems planning to Consolidate have some enforcement relief Systems which have a state or EPA approved consolidation plan may receive a 2-year moratorium from enforcement actions for violations being corrected under the consolidation plan. States to gain administrative penalty authority States must adopt administrative penalty authorities, as a requirement to maintain primacy. Congress has requested EPA to conduct further studies on a number of specific chemicals. The following section provides information about each of them. Arsenic EPA will conduct additional research on arsenic, particularly on health effects. However, EPA must promulgate a regulation for arsenic by January 1, 2000. Radon EPA will conduct a risk assessment and cost-benefit analysis for radon prior to the release of a proposed standard in 1999. An alternative standard will be developed if the MCL is more stringent than necessary to reduce the contribution of radon in indoor air from drinking water to the national concentration of radon in outdoor air. States may choose to develop and implement a multimedia radon program that is approved by EPA. This allows the states to use the alternative MCL. Sulfates EPA, along with the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, will conduct a dose-response study for sulfate. Sulfate will be one of the contaminants considered in the first round of contaminant reviews. Studies on Disinfection By-Products (DBP) EPA, after consultation with Health and Human Services and the USDA, must conduct studies to support the development of DBP/microbiological pathogen rules. As part of the commitment to ensure that safe drinking water can always be provided to the nation, the SDWAA includes a "state revolving fund". A State Revolving Fund (SRF) has been created to provide low interest loans to assist community and nonprofit noncommunity water systems in installing and upgrading treatment facilities to provide safe drinking water. A portion of the loan fund can be used to provide loan subsidies and loan forgiveness to economically disadvantaged communities. Each year the states will prepare plans identifying eligible projects and their priority, based on seriousness of health risk, compliance needs and system economic need. The state revolving fund encourages states to use some of the fund monies to pay for specific preventative and capacity building programs. Implementation of following programs will enable states to continue to receive the full amount of state revolving fund dollars they are eligible for under the allocation formula. Source Water Protection States will be developing a source water quality assessment program. This purpose of this program to determine the boundaries of source waters for public water systems and to identify, to the degree possible, the susceptibility of the source water to contamination. EPA will be issuing guidance by August 1997 to assist the states in developing this program. Capacity Development States will be developing a "capacity development" program that has two major components: first, to ensure that new systems have the technical, managerial and financial capacity to reliably deliver safe drinking water; second, to develop a strategy to identify existing systems needing improvements and assist in these areas. Operator Certification States will provide public water system operator certification to ensure that every water system has access to an operator who can perform certain key functions. Different types of certification will be developed depending the size and type of system being managed. For more information: For more information about the SDWAA contact Region 10's Drinking Water Unit at (206) 553-1230 or 1-800-424-EPA x 1230. /////////////////////////////////////////// start here PRESIDENT CLINTON SIGNS SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1996 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- important here On August 6, 1996 President Clinton signed legislation that provides strengthened protections to ensure that American families have clean, safe tap water. The legislation also contains important new loan funds, first proposed by the President, to help states and local communities provide more drinking water protection. The legislation strengthens and expands the nation's drinking water protection in four ways: Providing money that communities need to upgrade drinking water systems: The legislation makes available loan funds that will help communities upgrade treatment systems to make tap water safer, and authorizes additional annual loan funds in future years. Strengthening standards to protect public health from the most significant threats to safe drinking water: The legislation strengthens standards that will protect Americans from contaminants that pose the greatest health risks by setting clear schedules for developing standards for deadly microbial contaminants like cryptosporidium and mandating technical assistance to help water systems nationwide do a better job of delivering safe, clean water. Giving the American people the right to know about tap water contaminants: The legislation gives Americans access to direct, simple information about local water quality, water sources, contaminants, and whether the water poses a risk to health. Protecting the sources of our drinking water: The legislation contains measures that call for identifying and assessing potential pollution threats to local sources of water. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- To comment on this service, send feedback to the Web Development Team. Read our Privacy Policy //////////////////////////////////// 1999 Commemorates The 25th Anniversary of the Safe Drinking Water Act December 16, 1999, commemorates the 25th anniversary of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA), a federal law that sets health and safety standards for public drinking water in the United States. Initially passed by Congress in 1974, it was the nation's first comprehensive national drinking water law. SDWA identifies specific regulations to assure the safety of public drinking water. Under the current law, every public water system must test for more than 100 individual contaminants. Then the tests are studied by water utility professionals and state drinking water program offices. Both utility and state personnel compare the results with the established Environmental Protection Agency's drinking water standards. Since the 1974 SDWA, the government, the public health community, and water utilities throughout the country have worked together to safeguard the nation's drinking water supplies and to ensure the law protects public health in the best possible ways. The water utility community has worked with other public interest groups and Congress to strengthen the law in both 1986 and 1996. Here are a few examples: Water utilities have helped strengthen the law by working to keep customers informed about their drinking water. Many utilities provide annual Consumer Confidence Reports (CCRs) on water quality to help consumers know and understand a number of different things about their drinking water. In 1999, virtually all water utilities will be distributing a water quality report to consumers. Look for your water quality report/CCR either in the mail or your local newspaper sometime in October. Contact your local water utility with questions or to obtain more information about your report. Water utilities have invested billions of dollars in the development of advanced water treatment technologies. For example, the use of membrane filters and activated carbon systems, introduced in the past 20 years, has further improved the safety of the nation's drinking water supplies. Beyond federal and state environmental laws and regulations, water utilities have worked to develop additional safeguards, programs, and water quality improvement actions to ensure their water meets water quality goals far more demanding than federal standards. The Safe Drinking Water Act is an important piece of legislation for everyone who works to ensure water quality, and it is embraced by drinking water professionals throughout the United States. But you, too, have a role to play in keeping our water clean. Conserve. Protect. Get involved. These are ways you can help guarantee the quality of water in your community. Top Blue Thumb Home Page Public Affairs Page AWWA Home Page /////////////////////////////////////// Important here History of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) by Frederick W. Pontius, P.E. American Water Works Association Introduction Early development of drinking water standards Early U.S. drinking water standards Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations 1986 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments 1996 Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments Table 1: SDWA and amendments Table 2: History of the NIPDWRs Table 3: Drinking water studies completed by the National Academy of Sciences INTRODUCTION To be safe for human consumption, drinking water must be free from organisms capable of causing disease. It must not contain minerals and organic substances at concentrations that could produce adverse physiological effects. Drinking water should be aesthetically acceptable; it should be free from apparent turbidity, color, and odor and from any objectionable taste. It should also have a reasonable temperature. Water meeting these conditions is termed "potable." Water quality standards and regulations define potable water in quantitative terms. The term "drinking water standards" typically refers to numerical limits that define the maximum concentration of contaminants that water may contain to be considered potable (i.e., safe to drink). Drinking water standards may or may not be mandatory or enforceable, depending upon the agency issuing the standards and the legislative authority under which they are issued. Drinking water regulations are set by a regulatory agency under the authority of federal, state or local law. The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is the principal law governing drinking water safety in the United States. Enacted initially in 1974 (SDWA 1974), the SDWA as amended (Table 1) authorizes the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) to establish comprehensive national drinking water regulations to ensure drinking water safety. USEPA drinking water regulations require public water systems in the U.S. to meet specified drinking water quality standards. Regulations may also require that compliance monitoring be conducted, that specified treatment be applied, and that reports be submitted documenting that regulations are being met. To ensure compliance with water quality regulations, a water utility usually must produce water of a better quality than a standard or regulation would demand. Hence, each water utility needs its own water quality goals to ensure compliance while producing the highest quality tap water possible within its financial, technical, and managerial capacity. EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF DRINKING WATER STANDARDS Historically, civilizations began and located within regions of abundant water supplies. Water quality was not very well documented, and little was known about disease as it related to water quality. Early treatment was performed only to improve the appearance or taste of drinking water. No defined standards of quality other than general clarity or palatability were recorded by ancient civilizations. (Borchardt and Walton 1971) The first drinking water standards were developed at least 4000 years ago. In The Quest for Pure Water, Baker quotes a Sanskrit source (Baker 1981): "...it is directed to heat foul water by boiling and exposing to sunlight and by dipping seven times into a piece of hot copper, then to filter and cool in an earthen vessel." Hippocrates, the father of medicine (460 to 354 B.C.), stated that "water contributes much to health." (Baker 1981). His interest in water focused on selecting the most health-giving source of supply rather than on purifying waters that were bad. Apparently, ancient cultures deduced by observation that some waters promoted good health, while others produced disease. Although nothing was known about the cause of disease, the health-sustaining properties of pure and wholesome water began to be recognized. Tragically, this knowledge was gained only as a result of illness and death of many people. By the eighteenth century, removal of particles from water by filtration was established as an effective means of clarifying water. The general practice of making water clean was well recognized by that time, but the degree of clarity was not measurable (Borchardt and Walton 1971). The first municipal water filtration plant started operations in 1832 in Paisley, Scotland (Baker 1981). Aside from the frequent references of concern for the aesthetic properties of drinking water, historical records indicate that standards for water quality were notably absent up to and including much of the nineteenth century. With the recognition that various epidemics (e.g., cholera and typhoid) had been caused and /or spread by water contamination, people learned that the quality of drinking water could not be accurately judged by the senses (i.e., appearance, taste, and smell). Appearance, taste and smell alone are not an accurate means of judging the safety of drinking water. As a result, in 1852 a law was passed in London stating that all waters should be filtered (Borchardt and Walton 1971). This was representative of new understanding resulting from an improved ability to observe and correlate facts. In 1855, epidemiologist Dr. John Snow was able to prove empirically that cholera was a waterborne disease. In the late 1880s, Pasteur demonstrated the particulate germ theory of disease, which was based upon the new science of bacteriology. Only after a century of generalized public health observations of deaths due to waterborne disease was this cause-and-effect relationship firmly established. The growth of community water supply systems in the United States began in Philadelphia, Pa. In 1799, a small section was first served by wooden pipes and water was drawn from the Schuylkill River by steam pumps. By 1860, over 400 major water systems had been developed to serve the nation's major cities and towns. Although municipal water supplies were growing in number during this early period of the nation's development, healthy and sanitary conditions did not begin to improve significantly until the turn of the century. By 1900, an increase in the number of water supply systems to over 3000 contributed to major outbreaks of disease because pumped and piped supplies, when contaminated, provide an efficient means for spreading pathogenic bacteria throughout a community. In the mid- to late-1800s, acute waterborne disease of biological origin was still prevalent in the United States. Following the lead of European investigators, slow sand filters were introduced in Massachusetts by the mid-1870s. Empirical observations showed that this improved the aesthetics of water quality. In the mid-1890s, the Louisville Water Company, Louisville, KY, combined coagulation with rapid sand filtration, significantly reducing turbidity and bacteria in the water. The Louisville studies refined the knowledge of the process and showed the essential need for pretreatment, including sedimentation for Ohio River water. The next major milestone in drinking water technology was the use of chlorine as a disinfectant. Chlorination was first used in 1908 and was introduced in a large number of water systems shortly thereafter. EARLY U.S. DRINKING WATER STANDARDS U.S. drinking water standards have developed and expanded over the previous 100 years as knowledge of the health effects of contaminants has increased and the treatment technology to control contaminants has improved. The principal driving force behind development of drinking water standards and regulations is protection of public health. Interstate Quarantine Act In the United States, federal authority to establish drinking water regulations originated with the enactment by Congress in 1893 of the Interstate Quarantine Act (U.S. Statutes 1893). Under this act, the surgeon general of the US Public Health Service (USPHS) was empowered "...to make and enforce such regulations as in his judgment are necessary to prevent the introduction, transmission, or spread of communicable disease from foreign countries into the states or possessions, or from one state or possession into any other state or possession." This provision of the act resulted in promulgation of the interstate quarantine regulations in 1894. The first water-related regulation, adopted in 1912, prohibited the use of the common cup on carriers of interstate commerce, such as trains (McDermott 1973). 1914 Standards The first formal and comprehensive review of drinking water concerns was launched in 1913. Reviewers quickly realized that "most sanitary drinking water cups" would be of no value if the water placed in them was unsafe. The first federal drinking water standards were adopted in 1914. The USPHS was then part of the US Treasury Department and was charged with the task of administering a health care program for sailors in the Merchant Marine. The surgeon general recommended, and the US Treasury Department adopted, standards that applied to water supplied to the public by interstate carriers. These standards were commonly referred to as the "Treasury Standards." They included a 100/cc (100 organisms/mL) limit for total bacterial plate count. Further, they stipulated that not more than one of five 10/cc portions of each sample examined could contain B. coli (now called Escherichia coli). Because the commission that drafted the standards had been unable to agree on specific physical and chemical requirements, the provisions of the 1914 standards were limited to the bacteriological quality of water (Borchardt and Walton 1971). The 1914 standards were legally binding only on water supplies used by interstate carriers, but many state and local governments adopted them as guidelines. Because local and state officials were responsible for inspecting and supervising community water systems, they inspected the carrier systems also. In 1915 a federal commitment was made to review the drinking water regulations on a regular basis. 1925 Standards By 1925, large cities applying either filtration, chlorination, or both encountered little difficulty complying with the 2 coliforms per 100 mL limit. The standards were revised to reflect the experience of systems with excellent records of safety against waterborne disease. The limit was changed to 1 coliform per 100 mL, and the principle of attainability was established. In addition to bacteriological standards, standards were established for physical and chemical (lead, copper, zinc, excessive soluble mineral substances) constituents (USPHS 1925). Inherent in development of the 1925 standards was the concept of relative risk. The availability of adequate treatment methods and the risk of contracting disease from contaminated drinking water relative to other sources influenced their development. The preamble states: "The first step toward the establishment of standards which will insure the safety of water supplies conforming to them is to agree upon some criterion of safety. This is necessary because "safety" in water supplies, as they are actually produced, is relative and quantitative, not absolute. Thus, to state that a water supply is 'safe' does not necessarily signify that absolutely no risk is ever incurred in drinking it. What is usually meant, and all that can be asserted from any evidence at hand is that the danger, if any, is so small that it cannot be discovered by available means of observation." 1942 Standards In Feb. 1941, an advisory committee for revision of the 1925 drinking water regulations was appointed by the USPHS. The committee was composed of representatives of federal agencies, scientific associations, and three members at large. Significant new initiatives in the 1942 standards included (USPHS 1943): Samples for bacteriological examination were to be obtained from points in the distribution system, a minimum number of bacteriological samples for examination each month was established, and the laboratories and procedures used in making these examinations became subject to state or federal inspection at any time. Maximum permissible concentrations were established for lead, fluoride, arsenic, and selenium. Salts of barium, hexavalent chromium, heavy metals, or other substances having deleterious physiological effects were not allowed in the water system. Maximum concentrations, not to be exceeded, where more suitable, i.e., where alternative water sources were available, were set for copper, iron plus manganese, magnesium, zinc, chloride, sulfate, phenolic compounds, total solids, and alkalinity. 1946 Standards In 1946, a maximum permissible concentration was added for hexavalent chromium (USPHS 1946). Wording that excluded the presence of salts of barium, hexavalent chromium, heavy metal glucosides, and other substances was changed to prohibit the use of these compounds in water treatment processes (Borchardt and Walton 1971). The 1946 standards were further amended by publication in the Federal Register on March 1, 1957, of provisions authorizing the use of the membrane filter procedure for the bacteriological examination of water samples. 1962 Standards Over 19,000 municipal water systems had been identified as of the early 1960s. Federal water pollution control efforts had called attention to chemical and industrial wastes polluting many surface waterways. In addition, radioactive pollutants needed to be addressed. A new advisory committee was appointed including members from the USPHS, Food and Drug Administration, U.S. Geological Survey, and 12 national transportation, technical, professional, and trade associations. The 1962 standards provided (USPHS 1962): The addition of recommended maximum limiting concentrations for alkyl benzene sulfonates (synthetic detergents), barium, cadmium, carbon-chloroform extract (a measure of organic residues), cyanide, nitrate, silver The addition of a new section on radioactivity The 1962 standards, covering 28 constituents, were the most comprehensive pre-SDWA federal drinking water standards. They set mandatory limits for health-related chemical and biological impurities and recommended limits for impurities affecting appearance, taste, and odor. All 50 states accepted these standards, with minor modifications, either as regulations or as guidelines (Oleckno 1982). The regulations were legally binding at the federal level on only about 700 water systems that supplied common carriers in interstate commerce (fewer than 2 percent of the nation's water supply systems) (Train 1974). As an enforcement tool, the 1962 standards were of limited use in ensuring clean drinking water for the vast majority of consumers. In 1969, initial action was taken by the USPHS to review and revise the 1962 standards. The USPHS's Bureau of Water Hygiene undertook a comprehensive survey of water supplies in the United States, known as the Community Water Supply Study (CWSS) (USPHS 1970a). Its objective was to determine whether the US consumer's drinking water met the 1962 standards. A total of 969 public water systems were tested, most of which were community systems. At that time, this represented approximately 5 percent of the total national public water systems, serving a population of about 18.2 million people, or 12 percent of the total population served by public water systems. The USPHS released the results of the CWSS in 1970 (USPHS 1970b). The study found that 41 percent of the systems surveyed did not meet the guidelines established in 1962. Many systems were deficient in aspects of source protection, disinfection, clarification, pressure in the distribution system, or combinations of these deficiencies. The study also showed that small water systems had the most difficulty maintaining acceptable water quality, especially those serving fewer than 500 people. Although the water served to the majority of the US population was safe, the survey indicated that several million people were being supplied water of an inadequate quality and that 360,000 people were being supplied potentially dangerous drinking water. THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT OF 1974 The results of the CWSS generated congressional interest in federal safe drinking water legislation. The first series of bills to give the federal government power to set enforceable standards for drinking water were introduced in 1970. Congressional hearings on legislative proposals concerning drinking water were held in 1971 and 1972 (Kyros 1974). In Sept. 1972 the U.S. Senate passed S. 3994, an original bill reported by the Committee on Commerce, requiring establishment of minimum Federal drinking water standards with enforcement by the States and a program of grants to support State drinking water programs. The House took no action on this bill in the 92nd Congress. In 1972, a report of an investigation of the quality of the Mississippi River in Louisiana was published. Sample sites included finished water from the Carrollton water treatment plant in New Orleans. Organic compounds from the water were concentrated using granular activated carbon (GAC), extracted from the GAC using a solvent, and then identified. Thirty-six organic compounds were isolated from the extracts collected from the finished water (USEPA 1972). As a result of this report, new legislative proposals for a safe drinking water law were introduced and debated in Congress in 1973. In late 1973, the General Accounting Office (GAO) released a report investigating 446 community water systems in the states of Maryland, Massachusetts, Oregon, Vermont, Washington, and West Virginia (Symons 1974). Only 60 systems were found to fully comply with the bacteriological and sampling requirements of the USPHS standards. Bacteriological and chemical monitoring programs of community water supplies were inadequate in five of the six states studied. Many water treatment plants needed to be expanded, replaced, or repaired. Public Awareness Increases Public awareness of organic compounds in drinking water increased in 1974 as a result of several events. A three-part series in Consumer Reports drew attention to organic contaminants in New Orleans drinking water (Harris and Brecher 1974). For historical perspective, the first four paragraphs of Part 1 of that series state: "New Orleans, like many other American cities, gets its drinking water from a heavily polluted source---the Mississippi River. Many industries discharge their wastes into the river, and many upriver cities discharge their sewage into it. The rainwater runoff from farmland carries a wide variety of pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers, and other agricultural chemicals that swell the Mississippi's pollution burden. Even on its better days, New Orleans' drinking water has an off-taste and off-odor. Its palatability tails off further after large discharges or spillages of contaminants upriver. Few New Orleans residents are alarmed. They have been repeatedly assured by city officials that their water, processed according to established water-treatment principles, meets the drinking water standards of the US Public Health Service (PHS) and is 'safe.' And so it probably is, if one takes 'safe' to mean that the water won't cause typhoid, cholera, or other bacterial diseases---the diseases that standard water treatment is designed to prevent. But surely, as the senses of smell and taste testify, some things remain in the treated water that may not deserve a clean bill of health. In 1969, the Federal Water Pollution Control Administration sampled drinking water after it passed through the New Orleans water-treatment plant at Carrollton, by far the largest in the city, delivering more than 110 million gallons of water a day to 600,000 people. Tests were then run to identify organic compounds in the samples. Thirty-six such chemicals were identified; others were found but could not be identified. Three of the organic chemicals (chloroform, benzene, bis-chloroethyl ether) were carcinogens, shown to cause cancer in animal experiments. Three others were toxic, producing liver damage in animals when consumed even in small quantities for long periods. The long-term effects of consuming small quantities of the other New Orleans drinking-water contaminants, identified and unidentified, are unknown. In July 1974, representatives of the state of Louisiana and the city of New Orleans asked the USEPA Region VI administrator to determine, to the extent possible, the identities and the quantitative concentrations of trace organic compounds that might be present in the finished water of New Orleans and surrounding communities (USEPA 1975a). USEPA Region VI conducted this study in the months that followed. The Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) conducted an epidemiological study in the New Orleans area as a follow-up to the Consumer Reports articles (The States-Item 1974; Page, Harris, and Epstein 1976). The study compared cancer death rates from communities using the lower Mississippi River as a drinking water source with those from nearby communities using groundwater sources for drinking water. The report was released to the press Nov. 7, 1974, stating that persons drinking treated Mississippi River water had a greater chance of developing cancer than those in neighboring areas using groundwater sources (Page, Talbot and Harris 1974). The results of the USEPA Region VI study were announced in New Orleans on Nov. 8, 1974. The study found 66 organic compounds in the finished water from the Carrollton plant and detected 20 others (USEPA 1975a). Further publicity occurred Dec. 5, 1974, when CBS aired nationally in prime time a program with Dan Rather titled "Caution, Drinking Water May Be Dangerous to Your Health." Trihalomethanes Discovered Also in 1974, researchers at the USEPA and in the Netherlands discovered that a class of compounds, trihalomethanes (THMs), were formed as a by-product when free chlorine was added for disinfection (Bellar, Lichtenberg, and Kroner 1974). Although unrelated, publicity surrounding the formation of THMs coincided with the finding of synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) in the New Orleans water supply. On Nov. 8, 1974, the date of the USEPA Region VI press conference concerning the New Orleans study, USEPA simultaneously announced that a nationwide survey would be conducted to determine the extent of the THM problem in the United States (Symons et al. 1975). This survey was known as the National Organics Reconnaissance Survey, or NORS, and was completed in 1975 (discussed below). The true health significance of THMs and SOCs in drinking water was not known, and questions still remain today regarding the health significance of low concentrations of organic chemicals and disinfection by-products. Congress the Passes Safe Drinking Water Act After more than four years of effort by Congress, federal legislation was enacted to develop a national program to protect the quality of the nation's public drinking water systems. On Nov. 19, 1974, the House debated and passed by voice vote H.R. 13002, a clean bill reported by the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. Language of the House bill was then inserted in to S. 433. The Senate considered and amended S. 433 on Nov. 26. The House agreed to the Senate amendment Dec. 3, 1974. President Ford signed the SDWA on Dec. 16, 1974 as Public Law 93-523 (Congressional Research Service 1982). The 1974 SDWA established a cooperative program among local, state, and federal agencies. The act required the establishment of primary drinking water regulations designed to ensure safe drinking water for the consumer. These regulations were the first to apply to all public water systems in the United States, covering both chemical and microbial contaminants. Except for the coliform standard under the Interstate Quarantine Act mentioned previously, drinking water standards were not legally binding until the passage of the SDWA. The SDWA mandated a major change in the surveillance of drinking water systems by establishing specific roles for the federal and state governments and for public water suppliers. The federal government, specifically the USEPA, was authorized to set national drinking water regulations, conduct special studies and research, and oversee the implementation of the act. The state governments, through their health departments and environmental agencies, are expected to accept the major responsibility, called primary enforcement responsibility or primacy, for the administration and enforcement of the regulations set by USEPA under the act. Public water suppliers have the day-to-day responsibility of meeting the regulations. To meet this goal, routine monitoring must be performed, with results reported to the regulatory agency. Violations must be reported to the public and corrected. Failure to perform any of these functions can result in enforcement actions and penalties. The 1974 act specified the process by which USEPA was to adopt national drinking water regulations. Interim regulations (National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations [NIPDWRs]) were to be adopted within six months of its enactment. Within about 2 years (by March 1977), USEPA was to propose revised regulations (Revised National Drinking Water Regulations) based on a study of health effects of contaminants in drinking water conducted by the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). Establishment of the revised regulations was to be a two-step process. First, the agency was to publish recommended maximum contaminant levels (RMCLs) for contaminants believed to have an adverse health effect based on the NAS study. RMCLs were to be set at a level such that no known or anticipated health effect would occur. An adequate margin of safety was to be provided. These levels were to act only as health goals and were not intended to be federally enforceable. Second, USEPA was to establish maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) as close to the RMCLs as the agency thought feasible. The agency was also authorized to establish a required treatment technique instead of an MCL if it was not economically or technologically feasible to determine the level of a contaminant. The MCLs and treatment techniques comprise the National Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NPDWRs) and are federally enforceable. The regulations were to be reviewed at least every three years. THE NATIONAL INTERIM PRIMARY DRINKING WATER REGULATIONS Interim regulations were adopted Dec. 24, 1975 (USEPA 1975b) based on the 1962 USPHS standards with little additional health-effects support. The interim rules were amended several times before the first primary drinking water regulation was issued (see Table 2). The findings of the NORS (mentioned previously) were published in November 1975 (Symons et al. 1975). The four trihalomethanes (THMs)-chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform-were found to be widespread in the chlorinated drinking waters of 80 cities studied. USEPA subsequently conducted the National Organics Monitoring Survey (NOMS) between 1976 and 1977 to determine the frequency of specific organic compounds in drinking water supplies (USEPA 1978a). Included in the NOMS were 113 community water supplies representing different sources and treatment processes, each monitored three times during a 12-month period. NOMS data showed that THMs were the most widespread organic contaminants in drinking water, occurring at the highest concentrations. From the NORS, NOMS, and other surveys, more than 700 specific organic chemicals had been identified in various drinking waters (Cotruvo and Wu 1978). On June 21, 1976, the EDF petitioned the USEPA, alleging that the initial interim regulations set in 1975 did not sufficiently control organic compounds in drinking water. In response, the USEPA issued an Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPRM) on July 14, 1976, requesting public input on how THMs and SOCs should be regulated (USEPA 1976b). On Feb. 9, 1978, USEPA proposed a two-part regulation for the control of organic contaminants in drinking water (USEPA 1978b). The first part concerned the control of THMs. The second part concerned control of source water SOCs and proposed the use of GAC adsorption by water utilities vulnerable to possible SOC contamination. The next day, Feb. 10, 1978, the US Court of Appeals, District of Columbia Circuit, issued a ruling in the EDF case filed June 21, 1976 (U.S. Court of Appeals 1978). The court upheld USEPA's discretion to not include comprehensive regulations for SOCs in the NIPDWRs, but as a result of new data being collected by USEPA, the court told the agency to report a plan for amending the interim regulations to control organic contaminants. The court stated (U.S. Court of Appeals 1978): "In light of the clear language of the legislative history, the incomplete state of our knowledge regarding the health effects of certain contaminants and the imperfect nature of the available measurement and treatment techniques cannot serve as justification for delay in controlling contaminants that may be harmful." The agency contended that the proposed rule published the day before satisfied the court's judgment. Reaction to the proposed regulation on GAC adsorption treatment varied. Federal health agencies, environmental groups, and a few water utilities supported the proposed rule. Many state health agencies, consulting engineers, and most water utilities opposed it (Symons 1984). USEPA responded to early opposition to the GAC proposal by publishing an additional statement in the July 6, 1978, Federal Register (USEPA 1978c). Nevertheless, significant opposition continued based on several technical considerations (Pendygraft, Schegel, and Huston 1979a,b,c). USEPA promulgated regulations for the control of THMs in drinking water on Nov. 29, 1979 (USEPA 1979), but subsequently, on Mar. 19, 1981, withdrew its proposal to control organic contaminants by GAC (USEPA 1981). National Academy of Sciences (NAS) Study As required by the 1974 SDWA, USEPA contracted with the NAS to have the National Research Council (NRC) assess human exposure via drinking water and the toxicology of contaminants in drinking water. The NRC Committee on Safe Drinking Water published their report, Drinking Water and Health, in 1977 (NAS 1977). Five classes of contaminants were examined: microorganisms, particulate matter, inorganic solutes, organic solutes, and radionuclides. This report, the first in a series of nine, served as the basis for revised drinking water regulations. USEPA published the recommendations of the NAS study on July 11, 1977 (USEPA 1977). The 1977 amendments to the SDWA called for revisions of the NAS study "reflecting new information which has become available since the most recent previous report [and which] shall be reported to the Congress each two years thereafter" (SDWA 1977). Subsequent NAS reports in this series are listed in Table 3. USEPA often funds the NAS to conduct independent assessments of drinking water contaminants; studies regarding fluoride and nitrate have been completed. 1977 - 1980 SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT AMENDMENTS The SDWA was amended and/or reauthorized in 1977, 1979, and 1980 (Congressional Research Service 1982). At the beginning of the 95th Congress (1977), jurisdiction for the SDWA was transferred from the Senate Committee on Commerce to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works. In November 1977 Congress enacted amendments to the 1974 SDWA that reauthorized and revised certain provisions. S. 1528, amendments to the SDWA, was signed into law by President Carter Nov. 16, 1977 as Public Law 95-190 (SDWA 1977). Congress again reauthorized the SDWA in 1979. S. 1146, a three-year extension of authorizations for appropriations for the SDWA, was signed into law by President Carter Sept. 6, 1979 as Public Law 96-63 (SDWA 1979). During the 96th Congress the House Commerce subcommittee on Health and Environment held oversight hearings on the SDWA. On Sept. 19, 1980, the Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce reported a clean bill, H.. 8117, which the House passed by voice vote Sept. 23. The House-passed bill was referred to the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, which took no action. On Nov. 19, 1980, the Senate discharged the Committee from consideration of H.R. 8117 and passed the bill by voice vote. The bill was signed into law by President Carter Dec. 5, 1980 as Public Law 96-502 (SDWA 1980). 1986 SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT AMENDMENTS Congress severely underestimated the time required for USEPA to develop credible regulations. USEPA's slowness in regulating contaminants and its failure to require GAC treatment for organic contaminants served as a focal point for discussion of possible revisions to the law. Reports in the early 1980s of drinking water contamination by organic contaminants and other chemicals (Westrick, Mello, and Thomas 1984) and pathogens such as Giardia lamblia (Craun 1986) aroused congressional concern over the adequacy of the SDWA. The rate of progress made by USEPA to regulate contaminants was of particular concern. Both the House and Senate considered various legislative proposals beginning in 1982 that informed the SDWA debate and helped to shape the SDWA amendments enacted in 1986. Four oversight hearings were held in 1982 by the Senate Environment and Public Works Subcommittee on Toxic Substances and Environmental Oversight. Congress began considering broad amendments to the SDWA in 1983. The SDWA Amendments of 1983 (H.R. 3200) was introduced in the 98th Congress. The House Energy and Commerce Subcommittee on Health and the Environment held hearings on the SDWA. Issue-specific legislation was introduced to provide for the protection of sole source underground drinking water supplies. The House passed an SDWA reauthorization bill (H.R. 5959) on Sept. 18, 1994 (House Report 98-1034). An SDWA reauthorization bill (S. 2649) was passed by the Senate on Sept. 28, 1984 (Senate Report 98-641). However, the 98th Congress ended before a conference agreement could be reached (Congressional Research Service 1993). The 99th Congress built on the previous Congress' efforts to reauthorize the SDWA. S. 124 was introduced January 2, 1985, reported by the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee on May 15, 1985 (Senate Report 99-56), and passed by the Senate May 16, 1985. The companion bill, H.R. 1650, was introduced March 21, 1985, and reported by the House Energy and Commerce Committee June 11, 1985 (House Report 99-168). On June 17, 1985, the House considered and passed H.R. 1650, passed S. 124 with amendments, and tabled H.R. 1650. A conference committee was formed and the conference report on S. 124 (House Report 99-575) was debated and passed in the House on May 13, 1986, and in the Senate on May 21, 1986. The President signed S. 124 into law on June 19, 1986 as Public Law 99-339 (SDWA 1986). To strengthen the SDWA, especially the regulation-setting process and groundwater protection, most of the original 1974 SDWA was amended in 1986. Major provisions of the 1986 amendments included (Cook and Schnare 1986; Dyksen, Hiltebrand, and Raczko 1988; Gray and Koorse 1988): mandatory standards for 83 contaminants by June 1989; mandatory regulation of 25 contaminants every 3 years; national interim drinking water regulations were renamed national primary drinking water regulations; recommended maximum contaminant level goals (RMCLs) were replaced by maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs); required designation of best available technology for each contaminant regulated; specification of criteria for deciding when filtration of surface water supplies is required; disinfection of all public water supplies; monitoring for contaminants that are not regulated; a ban on lead solders, flux, and pipe in public water systems; new programs for wellhead protection and protection of sole source aquifers; and streamlined and more powerful enforcement provisions. The 1986 amendments significantly increased the rate at which USEPA was to set drinking water standards. Resource limitations and competing priorities within the agency prevented USEPA from fully meeting the mandates of the 1986 amendments. 1988 LEAD CONTAMINATION CONTROL ACT On Dec. 10, 1987, the House Subcommittee on Health and Environment held a hearing on lead contamination of drinking water. At that hearing the U.S. Public Health Service warned that some drinking water coolers may contain lead solder or lead-lined water tanks that release lead into the water they distribute. Data submitted to the subcommittee by manufacturers indicated that close to 1 million water coolers were in use at that time that contain lead. A subcommittee hearing was subsequently held on July 13, 1988 to consider H.R. 4939, the Lead Contamination Control Act. The bill had widespread support and moved swiftly through the House and Senate (Congressional Research Service 1993). The Lead Contamination Control Act was enacted Oct. 31, 1988 as Public Law 100-572 (LCCA 1988). This law amended the SDWA to, among other things, institute a program to eliminate lead-containing drinking water coolers in schools. Part F-Additional Requirements to Regulate the Safety of Drinking Water was added to the SDWA. USEPA was required to provide guidance to states and localities to test for and remedy lead contamination is schools and day care centers. It also contains specific requirements for the testing, recall, repair, and/or replacement of water coolers with lead lined storage tanks or with parts containing lead. Civil and criminal penalties for the manufacture and sale of water coolers containing lead are set. 1996 SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT AMENDMENTS The 1986 SDWA amendments authorized congressional appropriations for implementation of the law through fiscal year 1991. Reauthorization was not completed until 1996. Early studies set the stage Several studies following the 1986 SDWA amendments set the stage for potential changes to the SDWA. A 1988 study sponsored and supported by consumer advocate Ralph Nader drew attention to trace organic chemicals found in drinking water (Conacher 1988). A study by the National Wildlife Federation released in 1988 (Dean 1988) and updated in 1989 (Dean 1989) captured media attention by highlighting violations of the SDWA. Both reports characterized USEPA's enforcement of the SDWA as virtually nonexistent. Studies such as these raise the issue of whether public health is threatened by the failure of water utilities to comply with SDWA regulations. Although noncompliance occurs mostly in small systems, the issue of noncompliance raises concerns about the adequacy of the SDWA and USEPA's drinking water program and the ability of water suppliers to provide safe drinking water to their customers. The US General Accounting Office (GAO) assessed the implementation of the SDWA program by USEPA and the states at the request of the Subcommittee on Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (Committee on Government Operations, House of Representatives). The GAO report (USGAO 1990) was released June 8, 1990, and was the subject of Subcommittee oversight hearings held Aug. 2, 1990 (Hembra 1990). The GAO found that published USEPA data indicate that most water systems are complying with monitoring and maximum contaminant level (MCL) requirements and that the relatively few violating systems have generally committed minor infractions but that considerable noncompliance existed. USEPA sponsored a workshop in September 1990 that served as a starting point for USEPA to identify issues related to the SDWA (Schnare 1990). Representatives from the drinking water community, state agencies, USEPA, environmental organizations, and others presented their views on policy and technical issues that could be addressed during reauthorization. The National Drinking Water Advisory Council (NDWAC) compiled comments from a survey it conducted on changes to the SDWA (Kessler and Schnare 1991) and developed recommendations (NDWAC 1993). U.S. General Accounting Office (USGAO) studies note deficiencies The GAO released three studies in 1992 regarding implementation of the SDWA. An audit of 28 water systems in six states found high rates of noncompliance with SDWA public notification requirements (USGAO 1992a). The public notification requirements themselves were cited as a major cause of noncompliance, particularly for small systems, because the requirements have been difficult to understand and implement. A July 6, 1992, GAO report examined the gap between available resources and drinking water program needs (USGAO 1992b). Funding shortages at the federal, state, and water-system levels were found to contribute to implementation and compliance problems. It is estimated that by 1995, the total state and federal program requirements will exceed state and federal resources by $150 million. The sole source aquifer program was examined in another GAO report issued Oct. 13, 1992 (USGAO 1992c). The principal finding was that mechanisms used to identify projects for possible USEPA review were weak. The GAO released three additional studies in 1993. The wellhead protection program was the focus of a GAO report issued April 14, 1993 (USGAO 1993a). Several barriers were found to hinder states' efforts to develop and implement wellhead protection programs, including (1) opposition at the local level against states' enactment of land-use controls, and (2) a general lack of public awareness about the vulnerability of drinking water to contamination and the need to protect wellhead areas. A severe shortage of funds was identified as the underlying cause of these barriers and the primary problem affecting state wellhead protection programs. GAO conducted a nationwide questionnaire and reviewed 200 sanitary surveys conducted in four states (Illinois, Montana, New Hampshire, and Tennessee). Their report issued April 9, 1993, found that sanitary surveys are often deficient in how they are conducted, documented, and/or interpreted (USGAO 1993b). Many of the 200 sanitary surveys revealed recurring problems with water systems' equipment and management, particularly among small systems. Regardless of system size, deficiencies previously disclosed frequently went uncorrected. The gap between the needs and available resources of state drinking water programs was a major barrier severely affecting states' capabilities to conduct sanitary surveys. Severe resource constraints have made it increasingly difficult for many states to effectively carry out the monitoring, enforcement, and other mandatory activities to retain primacy. A June 25, 1993, GAO report concluded that the funding difficulties faced by states are likely to worsen and that resolving the primacy issue involves bringing the program's costs in line with resources (USGAO 1993c). State funding needs represent only a fraction of the expenditures that public water systems must make to comply with SDWA requirements. Results of a survey released in 1993 by the Association of State Drinking Water Administrators (ASDWA) identified an immediate need of $2.738 billion for SDWA-related infrastructure projects in 35 states (ASDWA 1993). Insufficient funding, political interference, and mismanagement were cited in a 1993 study by the Center for Resource Economics as the three main obstacles preventing USEPA from fully meeting its environmental statutory mandates (Center for Resource Economics 1993). On Mar. 9, 1994, GAO released the results of an audit of the ability of small systems to comply with SDWA regulations (USGAO 1994). The study found that states are experimenting with technology- and management-based approaches to help small community drinking water systems comply with SDWA regulations, but that barriers exist. The report recommended that USEPA revise its priorities to place greater emphasis on developing and maintaining viability programs. 102nd Congress Activity Minimal formal activity on the SDWA took place during the 102nd Congress. Rep. Henry Waxman (D-Calif.) introduced H.R. 2840, Lead Contamination Control Act Amendments, which was intended to rewrite USEPA's lead rule. A companion bill, S. 1445, Lead in Drinking Water Reduction Act, was introduced in the Senate by Frank Lautenberg (D-N.J.). The House Subcommittee on Health and Environment held a hearing May 10, 1991 on progress in carrying out the SDWA provisions for control of drinking water contamination. During the closing months, Senator Pete Domenici (R-N.M.) introduced bill S. 2900, that would have established a moratorium on implementation of drinking water regulations by prohibiting USEPA from spending money to implement and enforce regulations in place retroactive to December 1989. Senator Domenici offered S. 2900 as a floor amendment when the Senate considered the Veterans' Administration (VA), Housing and Urban Development (HUD), and Independent Agencies appropriation bill for fiscal year (FY) 1993. This bill provides funding for the USEPA and several other government agencies. To counter Senator Domenici, Senators John Chafee (R-R.I.) and Frank Lautenberg (D-N.J.) offered an alternative amendment. The Chafee-Lautenberg amendment required USEPA to conduct a study on the implementation of the SDWA. It also required the agency to conduct a separate study on radon. The Domenici amendment was narrowly defeated in the Senate by only six votes. The Chafee-Lautenberg amendment was adopted (Congressional Record 1992) and signed into law Oct. 6, 1992 (Public Law 102-389). 103rd Congress Activity Activity increased in the 103rd Congress with the introduction of several proposed bills. The first comprehensive reform bill was S. 767, introduced by Senator Don Nickles (R-Okla.). An identical companion bill, H.R. 2344, was introduced in the House by Rep. James Walsh (R-N.Y.). These proposals did not move forward and simply served to stimulate discussion on various SDWA issues. State Revolving Loan Fund Proposed Debate on the SDWA began in earnest when proposals were introduced in the House to authorize a state revolving loan fund (SRLF) for drinking water. The proposal for a drinking water SRLF was included in President Clinton's economic stimulus package offered early in 1993. A jurisdictional dispute arose between two House committees vying for control over the SRLF, and two competing bills were introduced, one for each committee. Although the president's package was eventually defeated by Congress, the SRLF bills moved forward. Separate SRLF bills were not introduced in the Senate because of the desire to deal with SRLF funding at the same time that other SDWA issues were considered. H.R. 1701, introduced by Rep. Henry Waxman (D-Calif.), authorized an SRLF as part of the SDWA. A proposal to amend the Clean Water Act (CWA) to expand the scope of the existing CWA SRLF to include drinking water was introduced by Rep. Norman Mineta (D-Calif.), who chaired the House Committee on Public Works and Transportation that has jurisdiction over the CWA. Both bills were reported out of committee. A drinking water SRLF was included in President Clinton's fiscal year 1994 budget, initially funded at $600 million, with additional funding planned at $1 billion per year thereafter. Because authorizing legislation for this money was not in place, it could not be appropriated and spent. Therefore, Congress decided to include the money in the budget with a condition that it could not be spent until authorizing legislation was passed. This meant that such legislation must have been in place before Oct. 1, 1994, or the money could not be appropriated for fiscal year 1994. USEPA Recommendations and Reports to Congress USEPA's recommendations for reauthorization were released by Administrator Carol Browner on Sept. 8, 1993, during a speech before the National Association of Towns and Townships (Browner 1993). A list of 10 recommendations was issued based on USEPA's report to Congress on SDWA implementation released a few days later. USEPA's report on SDWA implementation was submitted to Congress in September 1993 (USEPA 1993). In this report, USEPA estimated that compliance with the standards for 84 contaminants regulated to date is expected to cost public water systems approximately $1.4 billion (in 1991 dollars) per year by 1995 (Auerbach 1994). Individual household costs to comply with federal drinking water rules were estimated to range from a few dollars per year in metropolitan areas to several hundred dollars per year in small communities that have contamination problems. The report estimated that the 1993 state funding shortfall for implementing federal drinking water requirements was about $162 million; needs totaled $304 million, yet only $142 million was available from state and federal sources. USEPA's report to Congress on radon was published March 1994 (USEPA 1994a). The report revised the agency's risk and cost assessments for radon in drinking water. USEPA estimated that approximately 19 million people are exposed to a radon level above the then proposed MCL of 300 pCi/L. The total cost to treat radon in drinking water to below the then proposed MCL was estimated at $272 million. Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) Report The Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC) released a report, Think Before You Drink, The Failure of the Nation's Drinking Water System to Protect Public Health, on Sept. 17, 1993, that highlighted violations of the SDWA (Olson 1993). The report reviewed a number of problems associated with SDWA implementation and presented a set of proposals for SDWA reforms. The NRDC report made many serious claims regarding the quality of U.S. drinking water supplies and served as the first shot fired in an intense battle over the SDWA. In response, the National Rural Water Association (NRWA) issued a statement claiming NRDC sensationalized the report findings (Carroll 1993). The NRDC report attracted media attention, including a page-one story in the Sept. 27, 1993, USA Today (USA Today 1993a). Subsequent letters to the editor challenged the report's findings and conclusions (USA Today 1993b; Wade 1993; Ronnebaum 1993). House and Senate Consider Reauthorization Bills On Oct. 14, 1993, Senator Max Baucus (D-Mont.) introduced S. 1547 and a hearing on this bill was held Oct. 27, 1993, by the Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works, which Senator Baucus chaired. Senator John Chafee (R-R.I.), a key player in the SDWA debate, decided not to cosponsor S. 1547 because of disagreement over some of the bill's provisions. S. 1547 received a mixed response from environmental groups, and some of its provisions were generally opposed by various interest groups from both sides. On Oct. 27, 1993, the problem of unfunded federal mandates received national attention at a press conference held by national public interest groups representing state and local governments. These groups included the National Governors Association (NGA), the US Conference of Mayors (USCM), the National Association of Counties, and the National Conference of State Legislatures (NCSL). Unfunded federal mandates are laws passed by the US Congress imposing requirements on state and local governments without providing adequate federal funds to implement those requirements. The cost of complying with environmental laws in general and the SDWA in particular, in the absence of federal, state, and local financial resources, caused many groups to pressure Congress for relief. Concurrently with the October 27 Capitol Hill press conference on unfunded mandates, H.R. 3392 was introduced by Rep. Jim Slattery (D-Kan.) and Rep. Thomas Bliley (R-Va.). This bill received the most support of all of the proposed SDWA bills. H.R. 3392 was supported by the NGA, the National League of Cities, USCM, NCSL, ASDWA, NRWA, AWWA, the National Water Resources Association, the Association of Metropolitan Water Agencies, and the National Association of Water Companies. The bill was opposed by the National Wildlife Federation, the NRDC, Friends of the Earth, Alliance to End Childhood Lead Poisoning, National Education Association, and the National Parent Teacher Association. A key issue proposed by H.R. 3392 was a change in how drinking water standards are set. Proponents of H.R. 3392 argued that changes to the process are needed so that rational standards can be developed to maximize health protection with the limited funds available. Opponents of H.R. 3392 argued that it merely served to roll back existing standards (Waxman 1994). On Nov. 22, 1993, H.R. 3686 was introduced by Rep. Pat Roberts (R-Kan.). This bill would suspend the requirements of the SDWA until the cost to state and local governments of implementing its requirements is fully funded by the federal government. Although this bill did not receive serious consideration, it expressed the strong attitude many elected officials had regarding SDWA funding. On Mar. 10, 1994, Senator Pete Domenici (R-N.M.) introduced S. 1920. The bill was similar to H.R. 3392, but included provisions for a drinking water SRLF. Although the bill was referred to the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee, it was not considered during markup of S. 1547. On Mar. 24, 1994, Senator Domenici announced his intention to negotiate for inclusion of provisions from S. 1920 to give water utilities more relief from unfunded mandates (Domenici 1994). Senator Domenici offered several amendments during floor deliberations on S. 2019. On Apr. 18, 1994, Reps. Lambert (D-Ark.), Synar (D-Okla.), and Studds (D-Mass.) introduced H.R. 4314. The provisions of this bill generally followed the Clinton administration recommendations. H.R. 4314 served as an alternative bill for those representatives who desired to support an SDWA bill, but did not want to support H.R. 3392 because of opposition by Rep. Waxman (D-Calif.). The Senate Environment and Public Works Committee developed changes to S. 1547 in response to testimony at the hearing and other comments. The committee met to consider amendments to S. 1547 in March 1994. On March 24, the committee completed markup and ordered reported, by a unanimous vote, an original bill (S. 2019) that incorporated the amendments to S. 1547. After substantial floor amendment, S. 2019 was passed by the Senate May 19, 1994. With action completed in the Senate, the focus of attention shifted to the House of Representatives. Rep. Henry Waxman (D-Calif.), who strongly opposed the standard-setting provisions of H.R. 3392, threatened a legislative stalemate (Waxman 1994). Rep. Waxman chaired the House Subcommittee on Health and Environment, in which H.R. 3392 and other SDWA legislation was first considered in the House. Environmental Groups Oppose House Bill At the same time H.R. 3392 received strong support in the House, environmental interest groups mounted a strong campaign to defeat it. On Feb. 23, 1994, a coalition that included the NRDC, Friends of the Earth, the Environmental Defense Fund, National Wildlife Federation, National Audubon Society, Sierra Club, Citizen Action, US Public Interest Group, and Physicians for Social Responsibility wrote to members of the House of Representatives urging them to oppose H.R. 3392. A Mar. 4, 1994, memo from Erik Olson, a lobbyist for NRDC, to the heads of the NRDC, National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, the Environmental Defense Fund, Friends of the Earth, and the Sierra Club cited specific actions to defeat reauthorization of the SDWA through "immediate CEO meetings to ask for a delay" and " ... to allow time to organize a stronger media, grass roots and lobbying campaign." (Olson 1994a). Environmental lobbyists plan "to pour major resources ..." into their efforts on the SDWA, and "... may move to a kill strategy ...." This strategy was successful in achieving delay of the markup for S. 1547; environmentalists convinced Senator Baucus to delay the markup from March 15 to March 24, which allowed time for the coalition of environmental groups to place a full-page ad in the New York Times. The ad appeared the day markup began and denounced actions by water utilities that the environmental groups believe to be aimed at weakening the SDWA health standards. On Mar. 14, 1994, NRDC released a report titled, Victorian Water Treatment Enters the 21st Century (Cohen and Olson 1994). This study was designed specifically to influence SDWA reauthorization. It presents a critique of current water treatment practice and proceeds to make the judgment that water utilities have been irresponsible in their choices for treatment and maintenance. This charge was rejected by water suppliers in general (Parmelee 1994). The report encouraged opposition to H.R. 3392 and S. 1920. However, the report contained inconsistencies and was characterized as being "laced with the language of propaganda" (Parmelee 1994; Waterweek 1994). The NRDC hosted a press conference July 17, 1994, to release a 1992-1993 update of their report, Think Before You Drink (Olson 1994b). The report stated that between 1992 and 1993, one out of five Americans drank water contaminated by unlawfully high levels of toxic chemicals, microbes, and other pollutants, or water that was inadequately treated for those pollutants. The report was released simultaneously in more than 50 locations throughout the United States. Prior to the press conference, Erik Olson, NRDC senior attorney, and USEPA Administrator Carol Browner appeared on Good Morning America to discuss the NRDC report. Reauthorization Dies in Closing Days With the end of the 103rd Congress close at hand, pressure to take action on an SDWA measure increased. After many months of negotiation and delay, the House Health and Environment Subcommittee finally took action to markup H.R. 3392 on Sept. 20, 1994, more than one year after its introduction. The full House Committee on Energy and Commerce also took action that day to pass H.R. 3392, after making substantial amendments. The full House of Representatives passed H.R. 3392 under suspension of the rules on Sept. 27, 1994, less than two weeks before adjournment. Disagreement over procedural strategy and legislative language killed the 103rd Congress' chances to reauthorize the SDWA. Because of limited time, convening a formal conference committee was not possible. This meant that the committee staffs were faced with developing a compromise between S. 2019 and H.R. 3392 that would be acceptable to both chambers. Such a task was an impossible dream. For example, S. 2019 included a risk assessment amendment offered by Senator Johnston (D-La.) that was strongly opposed by environmental groups. The Senate overwhelmingly passed this amendment and (judging by earlier votes in the House of Representatives on USEPA cabinet legislation) the majority of the House would also have supported it. Congressman Henry Waxman (D-Calif.) personally visited the Senate floor and lobbied senators to block the SDWA bill in the closing days of Congress to try to avoid having to consider a Senate-passed bill with risk-assessment provisions. Disputes over amendments regarding takings, private property rights, and Davis-Bacon labor provisions also contributed to doom passage of an SDWA bill in the 103rd Congress. In the end, pure election-year politics regarding non-SDWA issues killed the SDWA. USEPA Redirection of Regulatory Priorities Limited resources forced USEPA to determine how many regulations can be funded and in what order. The agency initiated a process in late 1994 to redirect its regulatory priorities which had a significant effect on discussions regarding SDWA reauthorization. A draft strategic plan was prepared in December 1994 (USEPA 1994b). Based on discussions of this plan, USEPA asked the US District Court for Oregon to extend certain regulatory deadlines so that new priorities may be set for the highest-risk substances (BNA 1995). The request for an extension was submitted Jan. 9, 1995, in an amended consent decree signed by Robert Perciasepe, USEPA's assistant administrator for water (U.S. Court of Appeals 1995). An extension was granted until Aug. 1, 1995, for USEPA to develop new rulemaking schedules. This deadline was extended several times because of Congressional delays in finalizing the agency's FY 1996 budget. USEPA initiated discussions on possible realignment of its priorities with the public at a meeting held Jan. 19, 1995. Select groups were asked to help the agency select and shape a range of potential actions to refocus and redesign the nation's drinking water program. Strengthening the Safety of Our Drinking Water To initiate the comprehensive review and redirection of the federal safe drinking water program, USEPA released a report, Strengthening the Safety of Our Drinking Water, in March 1995 (USEPA 1995a). This report included the following agenda for action intended to influence reauthorization of the SDWA: (1) Give Americans More Information About Our Drinking Water (2) Focus Safety Standards on the Most Serious Health Risks (3) Provide Technical Assistance to Protect Source Water and Help Small Systems (4) Reinvent Federal-State Partnerships to Improve Drinking Water Safety (5) Invest in Community Drinking Water Facilities to Protect Human Health Also included in the report was a discussion of the following 8 topics that were to be the focus of stakeholder meetings; regulatory reassessment, scientific data needs, treatment technology, health assessment, analytical methods, source water protection, small systems capacity building, and focusing and improving implementation. Stakeholder Meetings USEPA held a series of public meetings in 1995 to gain input on how USEPA should redirect and improve its drinking water programs (USEPA 1995b, USEPA 1995c, USEPA 1995d). These meetings resulted in the development of a priority ranking of contaminants to be regulated that was released June 21, 1995 (Auerbach 1995a). Stakeholders indicated at the initial regulatory reassessment meeting on Mar. 13, 1995, that they did not want to address existing regulations. USEPA recognized that a statutory mandate to review existing rules exists. However, the agency did not have the resources to conduct these reviews, and had no schedule to do so. The agency had planned to consider contaminants regulated in the past as candidates for future priority lists when new information indicates that they should be rereviewed (Auerbach 1995b). USEPA Drinking Water Redirection Plan On Nov. 29, 1995 (USEPA 1995e), USEPA released for public comment a draft comprehensive drinking water program redirection plan (USEPA 1995f). This document reported the results of the stakeholder meetings mentioned above and included a priority listing of activities. The priorities and principles proposed in this document served as a basis for discussion of needed revisions to the SDWA. The final National Drinking Water Program Redirection Strategy report was issued in June 1996 (USEPA 1996). 104th Congress Activity The 104th session of Congress began Jan. 4, 1995, but the signs of change were evident following the November 1994 elections. New members, new committee structures, and a new political order set the stage for Congress to shape and consider legislative proposals thought inconceivable in prior years. House and Senate Pass Reauthorization Bills In the House of Representatives, the SDWA was charged to the Commerce Committee (previously the Energy and Commerce Committee), chaired by Rep. Thomas Bliley (R.-Va.). Bliley cosponsored H.R. 3392 in the 103rd Congress. The Health and Environment Subcommittee, chaired by Michael Bilirakis (R.-Fla.), first considered SDWA legislative proposals in the House. To stimulate discussion, Rep. John Dingell (D-Mich.) introduced H.R. 226; a bill identical to H.R. 3392 as passed by the House in the 103rd Congress. On Dec. 7, 1995, Rep. E.G. (Bud) Shuster (R-PA) introduced H.R. 2747. This bill amended the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act or CWA) to create water supply infrastructure accounts within existing clean water State Revolving Loan Funds (SRLFs) for the State's use in making loans for the construction of and improvements to drinking water supply infrastructure. This bill rekindled a long-standing jurisdictional dispute between the House Committee on Transportation and Infrastructure and House Commerce Committee, which is responsible for the SDWA. In the Senate the SDWA was under the jurisdiction of the Environment and Public Works Committee chaired by John Chafee (R-R.I.). Senator Chafee chaired the committee when the SDWA was amended in 1986 and has a more liberal view of environmental protection than his conservative Republican colleagues. The Subcommittee on Drinking Water, Fisheries, and Wildlife, chaired by Dirk Kempthorne, (R-ID), was charged with drafting an SDWA reform bill. S. 1316 was introduced Oct. 11, 1995, and hearings were held Oct. 19, 1995. Markup of the bill took place Nov. 7, 1995 (Senate Report No. 104-169) and the bill was passed by the Senate Nov. 29, 1995. Following passage of S. 1316, the focus of SDWA reauthorization activity shifted to the House of Representatives. On Dec. 12, 1995, Rep. Timothy P. Johnson (D-SD), introduced H.R. 2762 to address concerns over regulation of sulfate. The provisions of this bill mirrored S. 1316. Hearings on the SDWA held Jan. 31, 1996 by the House Health and Environment Subcommittee provided the basis for discussions to develop a bi-partisan bill in the House. Discussion amongst Commerce Committee staff to develop a bi-partisan SDWA reauthorization proposal progressed for several months. On Mar. 6, 1996, Rep. Pomeroy (D-ND) introduced H.R. 3038, a bill similar to S. 1316. On March 26, 1996, the majority staff floated a comprehensive proposal, which stimulated several additional proposals and counterproposals in an attempt to negotiate a bi- partisan agreement. On April 18, 1996, Rep. Waxman introduced H.R. 3280, the Water Quality Public Right-To-Know Act of 1996. This bill required each community water system to issue a report at least once annually to its consumers on the level of contaminants in the drinking water purveyed by that system. On April 23, 1996, Rep. Lowey introduced H.R. 3293, the Safe Drinking Water Estrogenic Substances Screening Program Act, to establish a screening program for estrogenic substances. The House Subcommittee on Health and Environment met on June 6, 1996, in a open markup session to consider draft SDWA legislation. The Subcommittee unanimously approved the introduction of a clean bill for full consideration. The bi-partisan bill, H.R. 3604, the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996, was introduced by Rep. Bliley (R-VA) on June 10, 1996. The House Commerce Committee met in open markup session on June 11, 1996, and ordered H.R. 3604 reported to the House, as amended (House Report 104-632). H.R. 3604 was passed by the House of Representatives on June 25, 1996, under suspension of the rules. Public Law 104-182 Enacted A conference committee was formed to resolve the differences between the Senate and House SDWA bills. The conference committee report was filed Aug. 1, 1996 (Conference Report 104- 741). The House and Senate both approved the conference report on Aug. 1, 1996. The SDWA Amendments of 1996 were signed into law as Public Law 104-182 by President Clinton on August 6, 1996. The SDWA amendments of 1996 made substantial revisions to the SDWA and eleven new sections were added (SDWA 1996, Pontius 1996). In addition to revising the SDWA, the 1996 amendments contain other significant provisions. The complete provisions of the SDWA as amended are summarized elsewhere (Pontius 1996). SDWA IMPLEMENTATION The SDWA as amended provides a sensible and comprehensive law to ensure safe drinking water for over 267 million people served by public water systems in the United States. Each member of the drinking water community has a key role in implementation of its provisions and in ensuring the safety of our nation's drinking water supplies. Implementation of the Act is moving forward very successfully through stakeholder meetings, advisory groups, new program development and development of new regulations (Pontius 1999). Further information on the progress made to date on implementation and the status of new and future regulations may be obtained through USEPA's Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water's web page, http://www.epa.gov/safewater/. REFERENCES ASDWA 1993. 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Drinking Water and Health. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1980a. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 2. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1980b. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 3. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1982. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 4. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1983. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 5. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1986. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 6. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1987a. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 7. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1987b. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 8. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1989. Committee on Safe Drinking Water. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 9. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1993. Subcommittee on Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride. Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1995. Subcommittee on Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water. Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1997. Committee on Small Water Supply Systems. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1998. Committee to Evaluate the Viability of Augmenting Potable Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water. Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1999. Committee on Drinking Water Contaminants. Setting Priorities for Drinking Water Contaminants. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1999. Committee on Risk Assessment of Exposure to Radon in Drinking Water. Risk Assessment of Exposure to Radon in Drinking Water. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NAS 1999. Subcommittee on Arsenic in Drinking Water. Arsenic in Drinking Water. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. NDWAC 1993. Safe Drinking Water Act Reauthorization Issues. A Draft White Paper. (Apr. 13, 1993). Oleckno, W.A. 1982. The National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations, Part I-- Historical Development. Jour. Envir. Health, 44:5 (May 1982). Olson, E.D. 1993. Think Before You Drink, Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, D.C. (Sept. 1993). Olson, E.D. 1994a. Memo to the heads of the NRDC, National Audubon Society, National Wildlife Federation, the Environmental Defense Fund, Friends of the Earth, and the Sierra Club regarding SDWA reauthorization (Mar. 4, 1994). Olson, E.D. 1994b. Think Before You Drink: 1992-1993 Update. Natural Resources Defense Council, Washington, D.C. (July 27, 1994). Page, T., E. Talbot, and R.H. Harris 1974. The Implication of Cancer-Causing Substances in Mississippi River Water: A Report by the Environmental Defense Fund. Washington, D.C. Page, T., R.H. Harris, and S.S. Epstein 1976. Drinking Water and Cancer Mortality in Louisiana. Science, 193:55 (July 2, 1976). Parmelee, M.A. 1994. NRDC Report Skews Utility Operations, Goals. Mainstream, 38:4:1 (April 1994). Pendygraft, G.W., F.E. Schegel, and M.J. Huston 1979a. The EPA-Proposed Granular Activated Carbon Treatment Requirement: Panacea or Pandora's Box? Jour. AWWA, 71:2:52 (Feb. 1979). Pendygraft, G.W.; F.E. Schegel, and M.J. Huston 1979b. Organics in Drinking Water: A Health Perspective. Jour. AWWA, 71:3:118 (March 1979). Pendygraft, G.W., F.E. Schegel, and M.J. Huston 1979c. Maximum Contaminant Levels as an Alternative to the GAC Treatment Requirements. Jour. AWWA, 71:4:174 (April 1979). Pontius, F.W. 1996. Overview of the Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996. Jour. AWWA, 88:10:22-27, 30-33 (Oct. 1996). Pontius, F.W. 1999. Complying with future water regulations. Jour. AWWA, 91:3:46-58 (March 1999). Ronnebaum, E. 1993. Letter to the Editor. USA Today (Sept. 29, 1993). Schnare, D.W. 1990. Summary of Comments, Safe Drinking Water Act Implementation and Reauthorization Meeting. USEPA, OGWDW, Washington, D.C. (Sept. 26-27, 1990). SDWA 1974. The Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974. Public Law 93-523. (Dec. 16, 1974). SDWA 1977. SDWA Amendments of 1977. Public Law 95-190. (Nov. 16, 1977). SDWA 1979. SDWA Amendments of 1979. Public Law 96-63. (Sept. 6, 1979). SDWA 1980. SDWA Amendments of 1980. Public Law 96-502. (Dec. 5, 1980). SDWA 1986. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986.Public Law 99-339. (June 19, 1986). SDWA 1996. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996. Public Law 104-182. (Aug. 6, 1996). Senate Report 98-641. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1984. 98th Congress, 2nd Session. Sept. 28 (legislative day, Sept. 24), 1984. Senate Report 99-56. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1985. 99th Congress, 1st Session. May 15 (legislative day, Apr. 15), 1985 Senate Report 104-169. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1995. (Nov. 7, 1995). Subcommittee on Health and Environment 1985. Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Health and the Environment of the Committee on Energy and Commerce, House of Representatives. Ninety-Ninth Congress, First Session. Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1985---H.R. 1650. May 1, 1985. Serial No. 99-28. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. (1985). Symons, G.E. 1974. That GAO Report. Jour. AWWA, 66:5:275 (May 1974). Symons, J.M. 1984. A History of the Attempted Federal Regulation Requiring GAC Adsorption for Water Treatment. Jour. AWWA, 76:8:34 (August 1984). Symons, J.M., T.A. Bellar, J.K. Carswell, J. DeMarco, K.L. Kropp, G.G. Robeck, D.R. Seeger, C.L. Slocum, B.L. Smith, and A.A. Stevens 1975. National Organics Reconnaissance Survey for Halogenated Organics. Jour. AWWA, 67:11:634 (Nov. 1975). The States-Item 1974. Cancer Victims Could Be Reduced---Deaths Tied to New Orleans Water. The States-Item, 98:129:1, New Orleans, LA. (Nov. 7, 1974) Train, R.S. 1974. Facing the Real Cost of Clean Water. Jour. AWWA, 66:10:562 (Oct. 1974). US Court of Appeals 1978. Environmental Defense Fund v. Costle, No. 752224, 11 ERC 1214, US Court of Appeals, D.C. Circuit (Feb. 10, 1978). U.S. Court of Appeals 1995. Donison v. Browner, DC Ore, CV 92-6280-HO; Miller v. Browner, DC Ore, CV 89-6328-HO; Frohwerk v. Browner, DC Ore, CV 90-6363-HO, Citizens Interested in Bull Run v. EPA, DC Ore, CV 92-1587-MA; Frohwerk v. Browner, DC Ore, CV 91-6549-TC (Jan. 9, 1995). USA Today 1993a. USA Today. (Sept. 27, 1993). USA Today 1993b. Water Crisis? Well, Sort Of. USA Today (Sept. 30, 1993). USEPA 1972. Industrial Pollution of the Lower Mississippi River in Louisiana. Surveillance and Analysis Div., USEPA, Region VI, Dallas, Texas. USEPA 1975a. New Orleans Area Water Supply Study. EPA Rept. EPA-906/9-75-003 (Dec. 9, 1975). USEPA 1975b. National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations. Fed. Reg., 40:248:59566- 59588 (Dec. 24, 1975). USEPA 1976a. Promulgation of Regulations on Radionuclides. Fed. Reg., 41:133:28402-28409 (July 9, 1976). USEPA 1976b. Organic Chemical Contaminants; Control Options in Drinking Water. Fed Reg., 41:136:28991 (July 14, 1976). USEPA 1977. Recommendations of the National Academy of Sciences. Fed. Reg., 42:132:35764-35779 (July 11, 1977). USEPA 1978a. National Organics Monitoring Survey. USEPA Tech. Support Div., Ofce of Drinking Water, Cincinnati, OH (1978). USEPA 1978b. Control of Organic Chemicals in Drinking Water. Proposed Rule. Fed. Reg., 43:28:5756 (Feb. 9, 1978). USEPA 1978c. Control of Organic Chemicals in drinking Water. Notice of Availability. Fed. Reg., 43:130:29135 (July 6, 1978). USEPA 1979. Control of Trihalomethanes in Drinking Water. Final Rule. Fed. Reg., 44:231:68624 (Nov. 29, 1979). USEPA 1980. Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Amendments. Fed. Reg., 45:168:57332-57357 (August 27, 1980). USEPA 1981. Control of Organic Chemicals in Drinking Water. Notice of Withdrawal. Fed. Reg., 46:53:17567 (Mar. 19, 1981). USEPA 1983. National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations; Trihalomethanes. Final Rule. Fed. Reg., 48:40:8406-8414 (February 28, 1983). USEPA 1993. Technical and Economic Capacity of States and Public Water Systems to Implement Drinking Water Regulations. EPA 810-R-93-001 (September 1993). USEPA 1994a. Report to the United States Congress on Radon in Drinking Water; Multimedia Risk and Cost Assessment of Radon. EPA 811-R-94-001 (March 1994). USEPA 1994b. Redirecting the Drinking Water Program. Draft. Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (Dec. 14, 1994). USEPA 1995a. Strengthening the Safety of Our Drinking Water. EPA 810-R-95-001. (March 1995). USEPA 1995b. Notice of Public Meetings on Drinking Water Issues. Fed. Reg., 60:37:10391-10393 (Feb. 24, 1995). USEPA 1995c. Public Meeting on Drinking Water, Consumer Awareness Project. Fed. Reg., 60:111:30538 (June 9, 1995). USEPA 1995d. Public Meeting on Drinking Water Paperwork Burden Reduction. Fed. Reg., 60:141:37894-37895 (July 24, 1995). USEPA 1995e. Comprehensive Drinking Water Program Redirection Plan Availability of Draft Document and Request for Comment. Fed. Reg., 60:229:61254 (Nov. 29, 1995). USEPA 1995f. Drinking Water Program Redirection Proposal. A Public Comment Draft. EPA 810-D-95-001 (Nov. 1995). USEPA 1996. National Drinking Water Program Redirection Strategy. EPA 810-R-96-003. (June 1996). USGAO 1990. Drinking Water: Compliance Problems Undermine EPA Program as New Challenges Emerge. GAO/RCED-90-127 (June 8, 1990). USGAO 1992a. Drinking Water: Consumers Often Not Well-Informed of Potentially Serious Violations. GAO/RCED-92-135 (June 1992). USGAO 1992b. Drinking Water: Widening Gap Between Needs and Available Resources Threatens Vital EPA Program. GAO/RCED-92-184 (July 1992). USGAO 1992c. Drinking Water: Projects That May Damage Sole-Source Aquifers Are Not Always Identified. GAO/RCED-93-4 (October 1992). USGAO 1993a. Drinking Water: Stronger Efforts Needed to Protect Areas Around Public Wells From Contamination. GAO/RCED-93-96 (April 1993). USGAO 1993b. Drinking Water: Key Quality Assurance Program Is Flawed and Underfunded. GAO/RCED-93-97 (April 1993). USGAO 1993c. Drinking Water: States Face Increased Difficulties in Meeting Basic Requirements. GAO/RCED-93-144 (June 1993). USGAO 1994. Drinking Water: Small Systems. GAO/RCED-94-40 (March 1994). USPHS 1925. Report of the Advisory Committee on Official Water Standards. Public Health Rept., 40:693 (Apr. 10, 1925). USPHS 1943. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards and Manual of Recommended Water Sanitation Practice. Public Health Rept., 58:69 (Jan. 15, 1943). USPHS 1946. Public Health Service Drinking Water Standards. Public Health Rept., 61:371 (Mar. 15, 1946). USPHS 1962. Drinking Water Standards. Fed. Reg., 2152-2155 (Mar. 6, 1962). USPHS 1970a. Community Water Supply Study: Analysis of National Survey Findings. NTIS Pb214982, Springfield, VA. (1970). USPHS 1970b. Community Water Supply Study: Significance of National Findings. USPHS, NTIS PB215198/BE, Springfield, VA. (July 1970). U.S. Statues 1893. Interstate Quarantine Act of 1893. U.S. Statutes at Large, chap. 114, vol. 27, Feb. 15, 1893, p. 449. Wade, S. 1993. Letter to the Editor. USA Today, (Sept. 30, 1993). Waterweek 1994. Enviros Charge Utilities With Treatment Technology Failures. Waterweek, 3:7:7 (Mar. 28, 1994). Waxman, H.A. 1994. The Next Water Crisis. The Washington Post (Jan. 19 1994). Westrick, J.J., J.W. Mello, and R.F. Thomas 1984. The Groundwater Supply Survey. Jour. AWWA, 76:5:52 (May 1984). Table 1: SDWA and amendments Year Public Law Date Act 1974 P.L. 93-523 Dec. 16, 1974 SDWA 1977 P.L. 95-190 Nov. 16, 1977 SDWA Amendments of 1977 1979 P.L. 96-63 Sept. 6, 1979 SDWA Amendments of 1979 1980 P.L. 96-502 Dec. 5, 1980 SDWA Amendments of 1980 1986 P.L. 99-339 Jun. 16, 1986 SDWA Amendments of 1986 1988 P.L. 100-572 Oct. 31, 1988 Lead Contamination Control Act 1996 P.L. 104-182 Aug. 6, 1996 SDWA Amendments of 1996 NOTE: Codified generally as 42 U.S.C. 300f-300j-11. Table 2: History of the NIPDWRs Regulation Promulgation Date Effective Date Primary Coverage NIPDWRs (USEPA 1975b) Dec. 24, 1975 June 24, 1977 Inorganic, organic, and microbiological contaminants and turbidity. 1st NIPDWR Amendment (USEPA 1976a) July 9, 1976 June 24, 1977 Radionuclides. 2nd NIPDWR Amendment (USEPA 1979) Nov. 29, 1979 Varied depending on system size Total trihalomethans1* 3rd NIPDWR Amendment (USEPA 1980) Aug. 27, 1980 Feb. 27, 1982 Special monitoring requirements for corrosion and sodium. 4th NIPDWR Amendment (USEPA 1983) Feb. 28, 1983 Mar. 30, 1983 Identifies best generally available means to comply with THM regulations. * The sum of chloroform, bromoform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 The sum of chloroform, bromoform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane. Table 3: Listing of drinking water studies completed by the National Academy of Sciences Study Scope Drinking Water and Health (NAS 1977) Examines microorganisms, particulate matter, inorganic solutes, and readionuclides. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 2 (NAS 1980a) Evaluated disinfectants, disinfection by-products, and granular activated carbon. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 3 (NAS 1980b) Evaluates several epidemiological studies, assesses the toxicology of selected drinking water contaminants, and examines the contribution of drinking water to the mineral nutrition in humans. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 4 (NAS 1982) Examines distribution system water quality and toxicity of selected inorganic and organic contaminants. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 5 (NAS 1983) Reviews the toxicology of selected synthetic organic chemicals, uranium, arsenic, and asbestos. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 6 (NAS 1986) Examines developmental effects, reproductive toxicology, neurotoxic effects, mechanisms of carcinogenesis, dose-response extrapolations, risk assessment issues, and the toxicology of selected contaminants. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 7 (NAS 1987a) Addresses again disinfectants and disinfection byproducts. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 8 (NAS 1987b) Focuses exclusively on the application of pharmacokinetics in risk assessment. Drinking Water and Health, Volume 9 (NAS 1989) complex mixtures. Health Effects of Ingested Fluoride (NAS 1993) Evaluates the MCLG and MCL for fluoride. Nitrate and Nitrite in Drinking Water (NAS 1995) Evaluates the MCLG and MCL for nitrate and nitrite. Safe Water From Every Tap: Improving Water Service to Small Communities (NAS 1997) Presents institutional and technological options for improving the management efficiency and financial stability of small water systems. Issues in Potable Reuse: The Viability of Augmenting Drinking Water Supplies with Reclaimed Water (NAS 1998) Reviews current issues associated with the potable use of reclaimed water. Setting Priorities for Drinking Water Contaminants (NAS 1999) Evaluates decision processes for selecting contaminants for regulation. Risk Assessment of Exposure To Radon in Drinking Water (NAS 1999) Evaluates health risks of radon in drinking water. Arsenic in Drinking Water (NAS 1999) Health risk assessment of arsenic. ////////////////////////////////////////////// The Safe Drinking Water Act - One Year Later - Success in Advancing Public Health Protection Dear Friends: On August 6, 1996, President Clinton signed the amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act, the primary statute for protecting our nation's public drinking water supply. I am pleased to provide you with the attached report, which describes how EPA and its many partners, one challenging year of implementation later, have taken many important actions to lay the foundation for public health protection for the 21st century. In the law, several deadlines were established for EPA to give States and water suppliers tools to strengthen drinking water protection. To date, EPA has taken every required action on or before the statutory deadlines. We worked with a broad range of stakeholders to develop these actions. EPA has also taken many other important steps to help ensure that States, water systems, and the interested public continue to be successful in their implementation efforts. All of these actions are vital to fulfilling the Act's goal to improve public health protection -- through focusing decision-making on the greatest risks, preventing contamination, ensuring local flexibility, public involvement and citizen right-to-know, supporting small water systems and establishing a Drinking Water State Revolving Fund for local water systems to improve deteriorating drinking water infrastructures. The new law achieves strong public health protection without imposing a "one-size-fits-all" requirement for specific action. Every community is different -- needs of each water supply vary depending upon local problems. The new law ensures that we focus protection efforts on the areas of greatest risk by providing for flexibility guided by "good science" and accountability through extensive community involvement. One year of experience has proven that public health and the nation's drinking water systems can be protected in flexible, common sense ways. Our challenge is to help communities utilize the many tools in the new law to provide for stronger protection of drinking water and public health. In this first year, EPA and its partners have begun to meet that challenge. The actions taken to date will help us reach the goal of providing all Americans with water that is clean and safe to drink. Sincerely Carol Browner o Click here to read online the document The Safe Drinking Water Act - One Year Later o Click here to download the document The Safe Drinking Water Act - One Year Later (12 pages) in ADOBE PDF format. Help on PDF format is available -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Search EPA Home Office of Water Comments Revised October 24, 1997 http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/year1/sdwa1y.html //////////////////////////////////////////////  Safe Drinking Water Act by Vincent Bredickas and Kim Hartnett --------------------------------------------------------------------------------  -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT OF 1974 The Safe Drinking Water Act (Public Law 93-523) was passed in 1974 due to congressional concerns about organic chemical contaminants in drinking water and the inefficient manner by which states supervised and monitored drinking water supplies (Pontius 1990). The essential aim of Congress was to assure that all citizens served by public water systems would be provided high quality water (Cook & Schnare 1986). Except for the coliform standard under the Interstate Quarantine Act, drinking water standards were not enforceable until the SDWA was passed (Pontius 1990). Under legislation of the SDWA, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) was required to set enforceable standards for health-related drinking water contaminants. The act also established programs intended to protect underground sources of drinking water from contamination (Cook & Schnare 1986). These standards were to effect all public water systems serving at least 25 persons (Pontius 1990). The regulations of the SDWA were set in two steps: The first step was to set interim regulations immediately. These regulations were based primarily upon the United States Public Health Service (USPHS) guidelines set in 1962. The second step was for these interim regulations to be revised. Revisions were to take place only after a comprehensive study in which the National Academy of Science assessed the effects of human exposure through drinking water and the toxicology of contaminants in drinking water was complete (Pontius 1990). Interim standards developed in 1975 set specific maximum contaminant levels(MCLs) for several substances classified as contaminants. Amendments were made to the interim standards in 1976, 1979, and 1980. In addition to the health-related enforceable guidelines set by the SDWA, the act mandated the USEPA to set nonenforcable federal guidelines for contaminants that may adversely affect the aesthetic quality of drinking water (Pontius 1990). The non-enforceable federal guidelines developed the set of initial secondary drinking water standards and their specific secondary MCLs (SMCLs). The SMCLs were set in 1979 (Pontius 1990).  DEVELOPMENT OF DRINKING WATER QUALITY STANDARDS IN THE 1970s AND 1980s During the middle and late-1970s the USEPA concentrated on regulating two classes of drinking water contaminants: 1- synthetic organic chemicals (SOCs) and 2- organic contaminants. The release of SOCs into drinking water sources results from industrial contamination of surface water supplies. Organic contaminants result from the disinfection process of water treatment, these organic contaminants are known as trihalomethanes (THMs). Some synthetic organic chemicals are considered toxicants. Some SOCs are also suspected cancer causing agents (Pontius 1990). These SOCs were not recognized prior to the early 1970s due to a lack of sophisticated analytical chemistry measurement techniques. As analytical chemistry technology developed, measurement techniques developed as well. With this development, scientists were able to reveal the presence and importance of SOCs in drinking water. Significance of organic and inorganic chemical contamination of drinking water and drinking water sources The first time the public became aware of chemical contamination in drinking water was In 1972. In a report named "Industrial Pollution of the Lower Mississippi River in Louisiana", scientists presented evidence of the presence of THMs and SOCs in drinking water (Pontius 1990). A study produced by the USEPA during 1976 and 1977 called the National Organics Monitoring Survey, concluded that the four THMs of concern; chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane, and bromoform were all formed during the disinfection process of water treatment. THMs are produced in the course of water treatment as by-products of the chlorination process (Pontius 1990). Volatile organic chemicals (VOCs) were also discovered as having presence in drinking water and drinking water supplies. VOCs are the result of commonly used chemical solvents spilled or dumped into the groundwater. To contain the threat of VOCs in the environment, the USEPA conducted the National Ground Water Supply Survey from 1981 to 1982 (Pontius 1990). The team for the survey sampled close to 1000 ground water supplied public water systems to find that approximately one quarter of the systems tested contained at least one VOC at concentrations above the detection limit (Pontius 1990). The presence of these man-made chemicals in drinking water made it clear to the public that resources once thought invulnerable were subject to man and his pollution. The presence of pesticides in drinking water was another verification that drinking water supplies were not safe. Some pesticides commonly found in water supplies across the nation are aldicarb, chlordane, and ethylene dibromide (Pontius 1990). A survey of the prevalence of pesticides in major surface water supplies performed by the USEPA in 1980 showed that 20 percent of the supplies tested had atrazine concentrations at levels of concern (Pontius 1990). A national survey finished by the USEPA in 1990 noted that out of the 1300 public and private groundwater supplies tested for pesticides, 10 percent of community wells and 4 percent of rural domestic wells had detectable amounts of at least one pesticide or degradation product (Pontius 1990). These detected concentrations were generally below MCLs or health concern levels (Pontius 1990). Another cause for concern in drinking water and drinking water sources were outbreaks of waterborne diseases. During the years 1972 to 1981, there were 335 reported outbreaks of waterborne disease involving approximately 78,000 cases (Pontius 1990). The most common microbiological agents of concern are Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium. Giardia infections are caught by ingestion of viable cysts from water or food by the fecal-oral route (Pontius 1990). Between 1972 and 1981, 50 outbreaks of waterborne giardiasis were reported (Pontius 1990). Viruses are also major contributors to microbiological contamination in drinking water. Between 1972 and 1981, 5000 cases were related to 11 waterborne outbreaks of viral infections (Pontius 1990). The last of the contaminants to require monitoring under the SDWA during the 70s and 80s were inorganic chemicals and radionuclides. The major inorganics of concern were and still are arsenic, barium, lead, natural fluoride and nitrate (Pontius 1990). Another frequently occurent inorganic chemical in drinking water, asbestos, comes from natural mineral sources and from the degradation of asbestos-cement piping systems (Pontius 1990). Because asbestos is a suspected carcinogen, it is regulated under the SDWA. Natural radionuclides of concern because of their carcinogenicity are radium, uranium and radon (Pontius 1990). The National Inorganics and Radionuclides Survey (NIRS), completed in 1987, indicated that of 1200 groundwater supplies tested for radionuclides, 72 percent of supplies tested positive for radon (Pontius 1990). Data from the survey along with information gathered from other studies and the individual risk rate for radon determined from uranium miner data, helped scientists to conclude that radon probably contributes the most significant cancer risk of any substance in drinking water (Pontius 1990). If you have a question that requires a quick, up-to-date response, call the Safe Drinking Water Hotline SIGNIFICANT AMENDMENTS MADE TO THE SAFE DRINKING WATER ACT IN 1986 In 1986 amendments were made to the Safe Drinking Water Act, making the act the Safe Drinking Water Act and its Amendments (SDWAA). " Emphasis shifted from a primary concern with treated drinking water to attainment of standards at the point of consumption" (Clark et.al 1995). The most important reason for the amendments of 1986 was to re-establish drinking water MCLs set under the interim regulations of 1974. These revised regulations were established on the basis of a comprehensive review of the occurrence of contaminants in drinking water and the potential health effects of human exposure (Pontius 1990). Responsible for the study was the National Academy of Sciences (NAS). The study helped to identify changes that needed to made to the original 1974 SDWA, hence the 1986 amendments. Two new regulations brought about by the amendments were the Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) and the Total Coliform Rule (TCR) (Clark et.al 1995). The USEPA ,under the SWDAA, is required to regulate chemical contaminants and microorganisms in drinking water. Both the SWTR and TCR set forth specific treatment and monitoring requirements that must be followed by all public treatment works (Clark et.al 1995). A more extensive list of important changes under 1986 SDWAA; to be enforced by USEPA important here Recommended Maximum Contaminant Levels (RMCLs) changed to Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) MCLs must be set as close as possible to MCLGs granular activated carbon (GAC) treatment is adequate for SOC control USEPA required to set monitoring requirements for 83 drinking water contaminants by the year 1989 By January 1988, USEPA required to provide a Drinking Water Priority List of contaminants in drinking water that may be harmful to human health By January 1991, USEPA must set standards and monitoring procedures for at least 25 contaminants on the Drinking Water Priority List USEPA required to set criteria by December 1987 under which water treatment systems using surface water as a source would be required to use filtration All public water systems required to incorporate disinfection under criteria set by USEPA Regulations established for water treatment works to monitor drinking water for unregulated contaminants; monitoring to be repeated every 5 years Listen to Gerry Higgins, P.E., the Superintendent Manager of the Blacksburg-Christiansburg-VPI Water Authority , about his thoughts on the SDWA. Overview of the public's perception of the Water Treatment Works Recent Legislation of the SDWA How the SDWA directly affects Gerry Higgin's plant Partnership For Safe Water For a more comprehensive look at the Water Industry, check out theAmerican Water Works Association Take a look at site for a complete list of Drinking Water Legislation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- References Clark, R.M, Rossman, L.A., Wymer, L.J., 1995. Regulatory Implications. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management. Nov./Dec. 1995:423. Cook, M.B., Schnare, D.W., 1986. Amended SDWA Marks New Era in the Water Industry, Journal of The American Water Works Association, August 1986:66-67. Pontius, F.W., 1990 Water Quality and Treatment, 4th Edition.: 12-17. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Water Treatment Table of Contents Previous Topic Next Topic -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Send comments or suggestions to: Student Authors: Vincent Bredickas vbredick@vt.edu, jfettig@vt.edu Faculty Advisor: Daniel Gallagher, dang@vt.edu Copyright 1996 Daniel Gallagher Last Modified: 02/24/1998 //////////////////////////////////////// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- J. Gwin, H. Deanda and F. Cadena Origin of the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Drinking water that is both safe and clean is a necessity for any community to remain healthy and happy. In the early seventies it became clear to the United States governments that with the increase of industry and populations, drinking water supplies were becoming more and more contaminated with undesirable bacteria and dangerous chemicals. Realizing that something needed to be done, the government put the question on the table for consideration. The result came in 1974 when Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA). Its purpose was to govern the quality of drinking water in rural areas as well as towns, cities and larger area municipalities. For twelve years, the SDWA seemed sufficient to cover the needs of drinking water quality control. As science advanced it became clearer that even more contaminants needed to be removed from drinking water. Up until that time the SDWA had only required standards on 25 drinking water contaminants. In 1986, Congress passed amendments to the SDWA. With these new resolutions, the government was calling on its environmental watchdog, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to develop methods of purifying over 80 different contaminants. Goals of the SDWA As time has progressed the standards for drinking water have expanded to set higher limits for the different contaminants. As well, concerns over clean water expanded from just municipal drinking water to agricultural water sources in order to protect food from contamination due to poor irrigation water. The standards and goals of the SDWA are all in the interest of maintaining the health of the citizens of the United States and all those who utilize its water sources. As dark side to the story, the high standards make complying with the federal law an expensive and arduous task. In the same way, local, municipal, and state governments throughout the nation have raised standards as well making the process even more difficult. Even though complying with the SDWA isn't a simple task, it is a necessary one. While the EPA no longer controls most SDWA enforcement, it still regulates individual states and ensures compliance and the state level. States in turn are responsible of r enforcing the SDWA within their own borders. Refusal to comply with standards warrants stiff punishment. While in most cases only civil action is taken, levying stiff fines ($25,000+) and reduced government funding, some situations require penal action. Direct lack of compliance can land communities in serious trouble with responsible parties possibly suffering penalty by law in prison. The EPA and US Congress take the SDWA seriously with hopes of raising awareness of just how important safe drinking water is in a time when so many highly toxic and dangerous chemicals are being deposited in drinking water supplies. Since 1986 the SDWA has gone even further and made even more extensive revisions. As science makes new advances in technology and increases its ability to remove dangerous contaminants from water, the standards set forth by the SDWA become stricter. Standards are made stricter by decreasing the levels of contamination allowed. The MCL, or maximum contamination/concentration level, is the minimum amount permitted by law to be present in drinking water. Since science is continually advancing and contaminant removal processes are becoming more and more efficient; the SDWA also contains future aspirations for contaminant standards. These MCLGs, or maximum contamination/concentration level goals, are not enforceable by law, however, as science progresses they may very well be upgraded to enforced MCL standards. At present, the SDWA holds the MCL and MCLG standards listed in Table 1. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Standards For Priority Chemical Contaminants -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Radon: There is currently no regulation governing radon levels in public drinking water supplies. EPA proposed a radon in drinking water MCL at 300 pCi/L on July 18, 1996. Commentators raised several concerns including cost of implementation, particularly for small systems, and the larger risk to public health from radon in indoor air arising from soil under homes. Subsequent congressional appropriations prohibited further work on the radon rule, and the 1996 SDWA amendments instruct EPA to withdraw the 1991 proposal. Under the Indoor Radon Abatement Act, EPA provides technical assistance and funding to states to implement indoor radon public information and action programs. These programs will likely be affected in states that seek to allow public water systems to comply with the alternative MCL by developing multi-media radon risk reduction programs. Arsenic: In 1976, the National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulation for arsenic was set at 50 ppb, and the 1986 amendments to the SDWA converted the interim standard to a National Primary Drinking Water Regulation (NPDWR), subject to revision by 1989. Citizens sued EPA for missing the deadline, and EPA continued to renegotiate consent decree regulatory deadlines, as new research became available. In 1995, EPA sought to delay the proposal further because of continuing uncertainties in the risk and technology assessments. The 1996 amendments to SDWA require EPA to develop a comprehensive research plan within 180 days and to statute require proposed arsenic standard by January 1, 2000 and a final standard by January 1, 2001. Sulfate: EPA published in December 1994 a proposed MCLG and MCL level of 500 mg/L, and 4 alternative compliance options designed to allow flexible implementation. The Agencys drinking water redirection effort concluded that sulfate was relatively low risk contaminant and led to call for a definitive study to resolve remaining risk questions prior to the promulgation of health effects based sulfate standard. EPA currently has a secondary standard for sulfate set at 250 mg/L. Secondary standards are not federally enforceable, and are established simply as federal guidelines for taste, odor, and other aesthetic effects. Lead & Copper: EPA promulgated MCLGs and NPDWRs for Lead and Copper (LCR) on June 7, 1991. The goal of the rule was to provide maximum human health protection by reducing lead and copper levels at consumers taps to as close to the MCLGs as is feasible. On April 12, 1996, EPA proposed several minor revisions to the LCR to address implementation problems and issues arising from legal challenges to the 1991 rule, and to streamline and reduce monitoring and reporting burdens. Lead and Copper rule regulations Action levels were established for lead and copper at the consumer's tap. These action levels are set at 15 micrograms per liter (ug/L) for lead and 1300 ug/L for copper. Homes must be sampled once every six months for a year. The number of homes to be sampled depends on the size of the population served by the utility. Homes to be sampled must have lead pipes or have been built between 1983 and 1986 and have copper plumbing with lead solder. For utilities serving less than 50,000 people; If the action levels are exceeded in more than 10 percent of the tap samples, then the utility is required to a) provide optimal corrosion control, b) begin public education, c) install source water treatment, if necessary and d) replace any lead service lines. If the utility does not exceed the action level in more then 10 percent of its samples, then it is only required to monitor once a year. For utilities monitoring more than 50,000 people: The utility must provide optimal corrosion control, then monitor again, once every six months for a year. If after providing corrosion control the action level is exceeded in more than 10 percent of the tap samples, then the system is required to a) begin a public education program, b) install source water treatment, if necessary, and c) replace any lead service lines. For public education, the utility is required to use television, radio and newspaper media to provide information regarding the health effects of lead and the precautions consumers should take to prevent high lead exposure from water. Radionuclides: New or revised standards for radionuclide contaminants were required by the 1986 amendments. A combined standard of 5 pCi/L for radium 226/228 was already in effect prior to this statutory requirement (since 1977). Pursuant to the 1986 amendments, EPA proposed in 1991 new, less stringent standards for radium 226 and 228 (20 pCi/L apiece) as well as standards for the other radionuclides. As a consequence of EPAs proposal to loosen the radium standard, some States have not taken enforcement actions against public water systems that have found radium in drinking water at levels between the existing and proposed standards. Pending completion of the 1991 rulemaking proposal, EPA has not objected to the use of State enforcement discretion for these systems, while encouraging States to require studies and public information as interim compliance measures. EPA is now reviewing the implementation status of the existing radium standards concurrent with EPAs reconsideration of the proposed regulations. The actions planned in the project area will facilitate implementation of clear and consistent national drinking water standards and enforcement policies for radium 226 and 228 and the remaining radionuclides. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Future of the SDWA -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The SDWA has been in effect for over twenty years and since its beginning has striven to ensure that the United States has safe drinking water in every community. As scientific advances push forward in developing new techniques and technology in water treatment, the SDWA will continue to push maximum water quality. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Web Sources The following web sites were used in compiling this document and have more information of interest on the subject of the SDWA: http:www.ladwp.com/bizserv/water/quality/topics/lead/lead.htm http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/sdwa/priority.html http://www.em.doe.gov/emtrain/a1f.html http://www.citation.com/hpages/sdwa.html http://hammock.ifas.ufl.edu/txt/fairs/18629 Table 1: USEPA Regulated Contaminants (Safe Drinking Water Act) USEPA Regulated Contaminants (Safe Drinking Water Act) Organics Inorganics MCLG MCL MCLG MCL Contaminant mg/L mg/L Contaminant mg/L mg/L Acrylamide 0 TT Antimony 0.006 0.006 Alachlor 0 0.002 Arsenic 0.05 Aldicarb 0.001 0.003 Asbestos (fibers/1>10um) 7 MFL 7 MFL Aldicarb sulfone 0.001 0.002 Barium 2 2 Aldicarb sulfoxide 0.001 0.004 Beryllium 0 0.001 Atrazine 0.003 0.003 Cadmium 0.005 0.005 Benzene 0 0.005 Chromium (total) 0.1 0.1 Benzo (a) pyrene 0 0.0002 Copper 1.3 TT Carbofuran 0.04 0.04 Cyanide 0.2 0.2 Carbon tetrachloride 0 0.005 Fluoride 4 4 Chlordane 0 0.002 Lead 0 TT 2,4-D 0.07 0.07 Mercury 0.002 0.002 Dalapon 0.2 0.2 Nickel 0.1 0.1 Di (2-ethylhexyl) adipate 0.5 0.5 Nitrate (as N) 10 10 Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate 0 0.006 Nitrite (as N) 1 1 Dibromochloropropane (DBCP) 0 0.0002 Nitrate + Nitrite (both as N) 10 10 p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 0.075 Selenium 0.05 0.05 o-Dichlorobenzene 0.6 0.6 Sulfate 400/500 400/500 1,2-Dichloroethane 0 0.005 Thallium 0.0005 0.002 1,1-Dichloroethylene 0.007 0.007 cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene 0.07 0.07 Radionuclides trans-1,2-Dichloroethylene 0.1 0.1 MCLG MCL Dichloromethane (methylene chloride) 0 0.005 Contaminant mg/L mg/L 1,2-Dichloropropane 0 0.005 Beta-particle and photon emitters 0 4 mrem Dinoseb 0.007 0.007 Alpha emitters 0 15pCi/L Diquat 0.02 0.02 Radium-226 + 228 5pCi/L Endothall 0.1 0.1 Radium-226 0 20pCi/L Endrin 0.002 0.002 Radium-228 0 20pCi/L Epichlorohydrin 0 TT Radon 0 300pCi/L Ethylbenzene 0.7 0.7 Uranium 0 20pCi/L Ethylene dibromide(EDB) 0 5E-05 Glyphosate 0.7 0.7 Microbials Heptachlor 0 0.0004 MCLG MCL Heptachlor epoxide 0 0.0002 Contaminant mg/L mg/L Hexachlorobenzene 0 0.001 Giardia lamblia 0 TT Hexachlorocyclopentadiene 0.05 0.05 Legionella 0 TT Lindane 0.0002 0.0002 Standard plate count NA TT Methoxychlor 0.04 0.04 Total coliforms* 0 1/100 mL Monochlorobenzene 0.1 0.1 Turbidity NA PS Oxamyl (vydate) 0.2 0.2 Viruses 0 TT Pentachlorophenol 0 0.001 *< 5% of samples are (+) Picloram 0.5 0.5 Polychlorinated byphenyls (PCB's) 0 0.0005 TT = Treatment Technique Simazine 0.004 0.004 Styrene 0.1 0.1 2,3,7,8-TCDD (dioxin) 0 5E-8 Tetrachloroethylene 0 0.005 Toluene 1 1 Toxaphene 0 0.005 2,4,5-TP(silvex) 0.05 0.05 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene 0.07 0.07 1,1,1-Trichloroethane 0.2 0.2 1,1,2-Trichloroethane 0.003 0.005 Trichloroethylene 0 0.005 Total trihalomethanes 0.1 Vinyl chloride 0 0.002 Xylenes (total) 10 10 Updated: Aug. 11, 98 /////////////////////////////////////// -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Safe Drinking Water Act Highlights The Safe Drinking Water Act was enacted on December 16, 1974 to protect public drinking water systems in the U.S. from harmful contaminants. The Act directs EPA to develop: important here 1) National primary drinking water regulations, 2) Underground injection control regulations to protect underground sources of drinking water, and 3) Protection programs for sole-source aquifers. Unfortunately, implementation of the Act was slow. So in 1986, Congress passed amendments in an effort to quicken EPA's pace in issuing standards and implementing the various protection programs. Notably, the 1986 amendments included provisions requiring EPA to: 1) Set drinking water regulations for 83 specified contaminants by 1989, 2) Establish requirements for disinfection and filtration of public water supplies and provide related technical assistance to small communities, 3) Ban the use of lead pipes and lead solder in new drinking water distribution systems, 4) Establish an elective wellhead protection program around public water supply wells, 5) Establish an elective demonstration grant program for States and local authorities having designated sole-source aquifers to develop ground water protection programs, and 6) Issue rules for monitoring wells that inject wastes below a drinking water source. To date, EPA has established close to 80 National Primary Drinking Water Standards. The agency has also issued secondary drinking water regulations that protect the public from drinking water with an unpleasant odor or appearance. These secondary standards are merely guidelines for public water utilities to follow; they are not enforceable. On August 6, 1996, President Clinton signed into law another amendment to the Safe Drinking Water Act. These amendments significantly bolster the ability of communities to upgrade antiquated drinking water filtration and purification systems. Under the new law, cash-strapped communities can apply for state-administered loans and grants to construct new water treatment facilities or upgrade old ones. Features of the 1996 amendments include the establishment of programs to train and certify competent water treatment plant operators, as well as the establishment of key drinking water standards for Cryptosporidium, certain carcinogens, and other contaminants that threaten drinking water in the U.S. In addition, the amendments will require community water systems serving more than 10,000 customers to notify them annually of the levels of federally regulated contaminants in their drinking water. These notifications must also include information on the presence of suspicious but still unregulated substances. If there is a violation, the notifications must contain information about the health effects of the contaminants in question. Of importance, EPA now has the authority to require public water utilities to notify their customers of the sources of contaminants in their tap water. This could eventually lead to pollution reduction in watersheds. These new requirements should lead to further improvements in drinking water quality in the U.S. For more information on the Safe Drinking Water Act, call EPA's Drinking Water Hotline at 800-426-4791. Or visit EPA's Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water web site. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Back to the Why Filter Water page -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Copyright 1997 OMNI Filter Corporation 800-937-6664 This page is best viewed at 800 x 600 /////////////////////////////////////// Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 GENERAL GUIDE TO PROVISIONS Environmental Protection Agency Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water August 1996 -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1996 (PL 104-182) establish a new charter for the nation's public water systems, States, and the Environmental Protection Agency in protecting the safety of drinking water. The amendments include, among other things, new prevention approaches, improved consumer information, changes to improve the regulatory program, and funding for States and local water systems. President Clinton signed the Amendments on August 6, 1996. Copies are available from the Government Printing Office (tel. 202/512-1808; fax 202/512-2250). This General Guide provides a subject-indexed overview of the new amendments. The guide will be supplemented with additional summaries and explanatory materials now under preparation by the Environmental Protection Agency. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- TABLE OF CONTENTS I. PREVENTION APPROACHES SOURCE WATER PROTECTION ASSESSMENT PROGRAMS, PROGRAM ELEMENTS, TIME FRAME FOR ASSESSMENTS, USE OF OTHER AUTHORITIES, ASSESSMENT LINK TO ALTERNATIVE MONITORING, DWSRF FUNDS OR ASSESSMENTS, DEMONSTRATION PROJECT, PETITION PROGRAM, CONTAMINANTS ADDRESSED BY PETITIONS, RESPONSE TO PETITIONS, USE OF CLEAN WATER ACT FUNDS, GRANTS FOR STATE PROGRAMS, WELLHEAD PROTECTION, NEW YORK CITY WATERSHED STATE GROUND WATER PROTECTION GROUND WATER GRANTS FOR STATES, GROUND WATER GRANT GUIDANCE, REPORT TO CONGRESS CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT NEW SYSTEM AUTHORITY, SYSTEMS IN SIGNIFICANT NONCOMPLIANCE, STATE CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES, CONTENT OF STATE STRATEGY, EPA INFORMATION, EFFECT OF REGULATIONS ON CAPACITY, REPORT ON STATE PROGRESS, LINK TO SRF ASSISTANCE, FINANCE CENTERS, TECHNOLOGY ASSISTANCE CENTERS OPERATOR CERTIFICATION CERTIFICATION PARTNERSHIP, CERTIFICATION GUIDELINES, STATE PROGRAMS, TRAINING REIMBURSEMENT II. CONSUMER INFORMATION CONSUMER AWARENESS CONSUMER CONFIDENCE REPORTS, COVERAGE, EPA REGULATIONS, HOTLINE, BOTTLED WATER CONSUMER STUDY PUBLIC NOTIFICATION GENERAL REQUIREMENTS, VIOLATIONS WITH SERIOUS EFFECTS, OTHER VIOLATIONS, STATE REPORTS, EPA REPORTS III. REGULATORY PROGRAM CONTAMINANT SELECTION GENERAL AUTHORITY, GOOD SCIENCE, OCCURRENCE DATABASE, CONTAMINANT LIST, DETERMINATION OF WHETHER TO REGULATE, URGENT THREATS STANDARDS AND REGULATION DEVELOPMENT RISK COMMUNICATION, COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS, SETTING MCLs, STANDARD SETTING FLEXIBILITY, LIMITATION ON FLEXIBILITY, RISK-RISK CONSIDERATIONS, JUDICIAL REVIEW, REVIEW OF STANDARDS, GROUND WATER DISINFECTION, EFFECTIVE DATE OF REGULATIONS, FILTER BACKWASH, REGULATION DEVELOPMENT FUNDING, BOTTLED WATER STANDARDS ARSENIC, SULFATE, RADON, DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS ARSENIC STUDY PLAN, ARSENIC DEADLINES, SULFATE STUDY AND REGULATION, RADON STUDY BY NAS, RADON STANDARD, ALTERNATIVE RADON STANDARD, STATE MULTIMEDIA RADON PROGRAMS, REVIEW OF MULTIMEDIA RADON PROGRAMS, SCHEDULE FOR MICROBIAL/DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS, DBP STANDARD-SETTING AND RISK-RISK, DBP STANDARD-SETTING DRINKING WATER STUDIES AND RESEARCH BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS, MICROBIAL/DBP STUDIES, WATERBORNE DISEASE STUDIES ANDINFORMATION, SENSITIVE SUBPOPULATIONS, SCREENING FOR ESTROGENIC SUBSTANCES, RESEARCH FUNDS, STRATEGIC PLAN, KERR LAB SMALL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VARIANCES, AND EXEMPTIONS AFFORDABLE TECHNOLOGIES, SURFACE WATER TREATMENT RULE, VARIANCE TECHNOLOGY, SMALL SYSTEM VARIANCES, REGULATIONS FOR VARIANCES, BLOCK ON CERTAIN VARIANCES, VARIANCE TIME FRAMES, AFFORDABILITY CRITERIA, CHANGE TO EXISTING VARIANCE PROCESS, REVIEW OF VARIANCES, TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION, EXEMPTIONS MONITORING INFORMATION COLLECTION, REVIEW OF MONITORING REQUIREMENTS, INTERIM MONITORING RELIEF, PERMANENT ALTERNATIVE MONITORING, EPA GUIDANCE, UNREGULATED CONTAMINANT MONITORING, SMALL AND MEDIUM SYSTEM MONITORING PLAN, RESULTS REPORTING, AUTHORIZATION, ANALYTICAL METHODS ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATIVE ORDERS, PENALTY CAP, PENALTY PROCESS, CONSOLIDATION INCENTIVE, ENFORCEABLE REQUIREMENTS, NOTIFICATION OF LOCAL OFFICIALS, EMERGENCY AUTHORITY PENALTY IV. FUNDING FOR STATES AND WATER SYSTEMS DRINKING WATER STATE REVOLVING FUND ESTABLISHMENT, ALLOTMENT AND ELIGIBILITY, LINK TO PRIMACY, LINK TO CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT, LINK TO OPERATOR CERTIFICATION, USE OF FUNDS, INTENDED USE PLANS, STATE MATCH, SET-ASIDES, OTHER USES OF FUNDS, COMBINED FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION, TRANSFER OF FUNDS, REGULATIONS AND GUIDANCE, AUDITS, NEEDS SURVEY, WATER CONSERVATION V. OTHER PROVISIONS PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SUPERVISION TIME FRAME FOR STATE PRIMACY, ADMINISTRATIVE PENALTY REQUIREMENT FOR PRIMACY, INTERIM PRIMACY, PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM SUPERVISION GRANTS, EPA PRIMACY FEDERAL AGENCIES SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY, REVIEW OF ORDERS, CITIZEN ACTION MISCELLANEOUS LEAD LEACHING STANDARD, LEAD PROHIBITION, LIMITED ALTERNATIVE TO FILTRATION, GRANTS FOR ALASKA NATIVE VILLAGES, RELATIONSHIP OF GRANTS TO DWSRF, WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT, DRINKING WATER FUNDS FOR COLONIAS, WASTEWATER FUNDS FOR COLONIAS, ZEBRA MUSSEL CONTROL, DEFINITIONAL CHANGE FOR ANALYTIC METHODS, DEFINITION OF COMMUNITY/NONCOMMUNITY SYSTEM, OPEN CONVEYANCES, RETURN FLOWS ADDITIONAL ASSISTANCE FOR WATER, INFRASTRUCTURE AND WATERSHEDS (Title IV--does not amend SDWA) GRANT AUTHORITY, USE OF GRANTS, FUNDING LEVELS -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- I. PREVENTION APPROACHES SOURCE WATER PROTECTION ASSESSMENT PROGRAMS: Establishes a new Section 1453 for source water quality assessments. States with PWSS primacy shall submit source water assessment programs to EPA for approval. EPA is required to publish guidance to States by August 6, 1997. States must submit their program to EPA no later than 18 months after EPA publishes guidance. A State program is automatically approved 9 months after submittal to EPA unless EPA disapproves program. [1453] Sec. 132(a) PROGRAM ELEMENTS: A State assessment program is required to: (1) delineate the boundaries of the areas providing source waters for public water systems, and (2) identify (to the extent practicable) the origins of regulated and certain unregulated contaminants in the delineated area to determine the susceptibility of public water systems to such contaminants. [1453] Sec. 132(a) TIME FRAME FOR ASSESSMENTS: Assessments are to be completed for all public water systems within 2 years after EPA approval of the State's program. EPA may extend this period up to 18 months taking into account funds made available to the State under the Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF). States shall make the results of the source water assessments available to the public. [1453] Sec. 132(a) USE OF OTHER AUTHORITIES: To avoid duplication, assessments may make use of sanitary surveys, State wellhead protection programs, pesticide State management plans, State watershed initiatives including efforts under the Surface Water Treatment Rule, and efforts under the Federal Water Pollution Control Act (Clean Water Act). [1453] Sec. 132(a) ASSESSMENT LINK TO ALTERNATIVE MONITORING: For a State to tailor alternative monitoring requirements for pubic water systems under a new permanent monitoring relief authority (Section 1418), a State must have an EPA approved source water assessment program. Any public water system seeking alternative monitoring requirements under a State's permanent monitoring relief authority must have a complete source water assessment. [1453] Sec. 132(a) DWSRF FUNDS FOR SOURCE WATER PROTECTION: A State may use up to 10% of its DWSRF allotment in both FY 1996 and 1997 to delineate and assess source water protection areas. Loans may also be used to acquire land or conservation easements to protect source waters and to implement voluntary measures to facilitate compliance. A State may use up to an additional 10% of its DWSRF allotment to administer or provide technical assistance through source water protection programs. [1452(g), (k)] Sec. 130 DEMONSTRATION PROJECT: EPA is to conduct a demonstration project of the most effective and protective means of assessing and protecting source waters serving large metropolitan areas and located on Federal lands. [1453] Sec. 132(a) PETITION PROGRAM: A new authority is established for a source water petition program. States may establish a program to receive, approve and respond to petitions from a public water system operator/ owner or local government entity to assist in the development of voluntary local incentive-based partnerships to (1) reduce the presence of contaminants, (2) provide financial or technical assistance requested, and (3) develop recommendations for voluntary, long-term source water protection strategies. [1454] Sec. 133(a) CONTAMINANTS ADDRESSED BY PETITIONS: Petitions may address only either pathogenic organisms which are regulated (or for which regulation is required) or contaminants detected that are not found "reliably and consistently" below the MCL. [1454] Sec. 133(a) RESPONSE TO PETITIONS: In responding to source water petitions, a State is to provide, at a minimum, information on: priority of the public health concern identified by the petition; funds available; and technical/financial assistance available from other Federal and State programs, including the DWSRF and programmatic grants of the CWA, Section 6217 of the Coastal Zone Act, Title XI of the Food Security Act, sole source aquifer, wellhead protection, pesticide-ground water management plans, etc. [1454] Sec. 133(a) USE OF CLEAN WATER ACT FUNDS: A "Sense of Congress" provision states that priorities established under section 606(c) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act give special consideration to projects recommended pursuant to local source water petitions. [Free standing-- does not amend SDWA] Sec.133(b) GRANTS FOR STATE PROGRAMS: By August 7, 1997, EPA is to publish guidance to assist States in developing source water quality protection partnership programs, and to assist local governments and community water systems in developing partnerships and assessing source water quality. State grants of $5 million are authorized to carry out such programs. [1454(c)] Sec. 133(a) Also, up to 10% of a State's DWSRF allotment can be used by States for responding to petitions. [1452(g), (k)] Sec. 130 WELLHEAD PROTECTION: Annual funding for States wellhead protection programs is reauthorized for FYs 1997-2003 at $30 million, underground injection control programs at $15 million, and critical aquifer protection at $15 million. [1428(k)] Sec. 120. States may use up to 10% of their DWSRF allotment to implement their wellhead protection programs. [1452(g)] Sec. 130 NEW YORK CITY WATERSHED: Establishes the New York City watershed protection program. EPA is authorized to provide financial assistance to State of New York for demonstration projects implemented as part of the watershed program for the protection and enhancement of the quality of source waters of the New York City water supply system. Within 5 years, the Governor of New York is to provide EPA with a report on the results of funded projects. $15 million grant to New York is authorized for each fiscal year 1997 to 2003. [1443(d)] Sec. 128 STATE GROUND WATER PROTECTION GROUND WATER GRANTS FOR STATES: Establishes a new Section 1429 for state ground water protection programs. EPA may make grants to States to develop programs to ensure coordinated and comprehensive protection of ground water resources within the State. $15 million is authorized for State grants for each fiscal year 1997 to 2003. [1429] Sec. 131 GROUND WATER GRANT GUIDANCE: By August 6, 1997, and annually thereafter, EPA is to publish guidance establishing procedures for State grant applications. [1429] Sec. 131 REPORT TO CONGRESS: By August, 1999, and every three years thereafter, EPA is to report to Congress on the quality of the Nation's ground waters and effectiveness of State programs for ground water protection. [1429] Sec. 131 CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT NEW SYSTEM AUTHORITY: By October 1, 1999, each State must obtain the authority to ensure that new community water systems and non-transient noncommunity water systems have the technical, financial, and managerial capacity to meet National Primary Drinking Water Regulations. A State will receive only 80% of its DWSRF allotment unless the State has such authority. [1420(a)] Sec. 119 SYSTEMS IN SIGNIFICANT NONCOMPLIANCE: States must prepare and submit to EPA by August 6, 1997 (and periodically update) a list of community water systems and non-transient, non-community water systems that have a history of significant noncompliance, and the reasons for their noncompliance. States must report to EPA in 5 years on the success of efforts to assist small systems in improving capacity. [1420(b)] Sec.119 STATE CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT STRATEGIES: States are required to establish capacity development strategies to assist systems in developing and maintaining technical, financial and management capacity. States not developing and implementing a strategy receive only 90% of their DWSRF allotment in Fiscal Year 2001; 85% in 2002; and 80% in each subsequent fiscal year. [1420(c)] Sec. 119. The total withholding for all capacity development provisions may not exceed 20%. [1452(a)(1)(G)]. Sec. 130 CONTENT OF STATE STRATEGY: In preparing its capacity development strategy, each State shall: consider the criteria it will use to identify public water supplies most in need of improved capacity; describe factors that encourage or impair capacity development; describe how the State will use its authorities to assist systems in complying, encourage partnerships between systems, and assist in training/certification of operators; describe how the State will measure progress; and identify parties interested in capacity development [1420(c)] Sec. 119 EPA INFORMATION: Within 180 days of enactment, EPA is to conduct a review of existing State capacity development efforts and publish information to assist States and water systems in capacity development efforts. Within 2 years of enactment EPA is to develop guidance, in consultation with the States, describing legal authorities and other means to ensure that new systems demonstrate technical, financial, and managerial capacity. [1420(d)] Sec. 119 EFFECT OF REGULATIONS ON CAPACITY: When promulgating new regulations, EPA must include an analysis of the likely effect of regulations on the technical, financial, and managerial capacity of water systems. [1420(d)(3)] Sec. 119 REPORT ON STATE PROGRESS: States must make available to the public a report to the Governor (within 2 years and every 3 years thereafter) on the efficacy of their capacity development strategy and progress in improving water system capacity. [1420(c)(3)] Sec. 119 LINK TO DWSRF ASSISTANCE: Systems that are in significant noncompliance or lack technical, financial and managerial capacity to ensure compliance may not receive DWSRF assistance unless the assistance will ensure compliance and, where the system lacks capacity, the system agrees to undertake appropriate changes, as the State deems necessary, to ensure capacity. [1452(a)(3)] Sec. 130 FINANCE CENTERS: EPA is authorized to provide initial funding for one or more university-based environmental finance centers (including a national public water system capacity development clearinghouse) that would provide technical assistance to State and local officials in developing the financial and managerial capacity of public water systems. $1,500,000 is authorized for each fiscal year 1997-2003. [1420(g)] Sec. 119 TECHNOLOGY ASSISTANCE CENTERS: EPA is authorized to make grants to universities to establish and operate small public water system technology assistance centers. The centers would conduct training and technical assistance relating to the information, performance, and technical needs of small water systems. Criteria are provided for EPA to use to select grant recipients. $2 million is authorized for each of the fiscal years 1997 through 1999 and $5 million for each of the fiscal years 2000 through 2003. [1420(f)] Sec. 119 OPERATOR CERTIFICATION CERTIFICATION PARTNERSHIP: Within 180 days EPA must initiate a partnership with States, Public Water Systems, and the public to develop information on recommended operator certification requirements. The information developed through this partnership must be published within 18 months of enactment. [1420(d)] Sec. 119 CERTIFICATION GUIDELINES: Within 30 months of enactment, in cooperation with the States, EPA must publish guidelines specifying minimum standards for certification and recertification of operators of community and nontransient, noncommunity water systems. [1419(a)] Existing State programs are to be considered substantially equivalent to the guidelines unless the existing program fails to achieve the overall public health objectives of the guidelines. [1419(c)] Sec. 123 STATE PROGRAMS: Beginning 2 years after guidelines are published, 20% of a State's DWSRF allotment will be withheld if the State is not implementing an operator certification program. [1419(b)] Sec. 123 TRAINING REIMBURSEMENT: EPA, through grants to the States (allocated on the basis of "reasonable costs"), is required to reimburse training and certification costs for operators of systems serving fewer than 3,300, including per diem for unsalaried operators, who are required to undergo training as a result of the Federal requirement. Grants of $30 million are authorized, and DWSRF funds may used if appropriations are not sufficient. [1419(d)] Sec. 123 II. CONSUMER INFORMATION CONSUMER AWARENESS CONSUMER CONFIDENCE REPORTS: Community water systems are to prepare an annual "consumer confidence report" on the source of their drinking water and the levels of contaminants found in the drinking water. The report is to be sent to all customers by mail. The report is required annually, and must include: (1) information on the source of drinking water, (2) brief definitions of terms, (3) (if regulated contaminants are found) the MCLG, MCL, and the level found, (4) (if MCL is violated) information on health effects, and (5) information on levels of unregulated contaminants (if required by EPA regulations). [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) COVERAGE: Governors may allow systems serving fewer than 10,000 persons to publish the report in a local news- paper, in lieu of mailing. Governors may also allow systems serving fewer than 500 people to notify customers that the report is available, in lieu of mailing. The report is required annually. States may adopt alternative requirements for the form and content of consumer confidence reports (through State regulation). [1414(c)(4)] Sec. 114(a) EPA REGULATIONS: EPA must issue regulations within 2 years of enactment, that establish the requirements for the consumer confidence reports. These regulations must be developed in consultation with public water systems, environmental groups, public interest groups, risk communication experts, and the States. The regulations must include plainly worded definitions of "maximum contaminant level goal," "maximum contaminant level," "variances," and "exemptions," as well as plain-language explanations of the health concerns associated with contaminants. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) HOTLINE: EPA is required to have a Hotline for consumers to provide more information on drinking water contaminants and potential health effects. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) BOTTLED WATER CONSUMER STUDY: The Food and Drug Administration is required to publish in 18 months for public comment, a study on the feasibility of appropriate methods for informing consumers of the contents of bottled water. The final study is to be done in 30 months. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(b) PUBLIC NOTIFICATION GENERAL REQUIREMENTS: Clarifies general requirements for public notification of violations of any MCL, treatment technique, testing procedure, or monitoring requirement, and the existence or violation of a variance or exemption. The general requirement includes unregulated contaminants if (as in the old law) notice is required by EPA regulations. The basis for EPA's public notification regulation is altered to clarify those violations requiring 24 hour notice and those that may be provided at a later date. States are allowed to adopt alternative "form and content" of public notice through State regulation. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) VIOLATIONS WITH SERIOUS EFFECTS: Notices for violations with potential to have "serious adverse effect" must contain an explanation of the violation, the potential health effects, what the system is doing to correct the problem, and whether consumers need to use an alternate source of water. Recipients of such notices must include consumers and the State. Notices must be given by "appropriate" broadcast media and newspaper serving area, or posted door-to-door in lieu of broadcast media/newspaper. Notices must be given within 24 hours after occurrence of violation. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) OTHER VIOLATIONS: EPA is to prescribe the form and manner of the notice for violations that do not have the potential to have a "serious adverse effect." Persons served by a system must receive the notice in the first bill after the violation, in an annual report, or by mail or direct delivery within a year. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) STATE REPORTS: Each State is required to prepare an annual report on violations. States are also required to publish and distribute summaries of the report and specify where the full report is available. The first report is due on January 1, 1998. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) EPA REPORTS: EPA is required to prepare an annual report summarizing States' reports and public notices submitted by Indian Tribes. The report will include EPA recommendations on resources needed to improve compliance and will discuss EPA enforcement activity against, and financial assistance to, Indian reservations. EPA's first report is due in July, 1998. [1414(c)] Sec. 114(a) III. REGULATORY PROGRAM CONTAMINANT SELECTION GENERAL AUTHORITY: EPA's general authority to set an MCLG and to regulate a contaminant is modified to apply to contaminants that: may adversely effect human health; are known or likely to occur at a frequency and level of public health concern in public water systems; and for which regulation presents a meaning-ful opportunity for health risk reduction for persons served by public water systems. [Section 1412(b)] Sec. 102(a) GOOD SCIENCE: Continues the old law's requirement that EPA consult with the EPA's Science Advisory Board and National Drinking Water Advisory Council in promulgating regulations. A provision is added requiring EPA to use the "best available, peer-reviewed science" and data collected by accepted or best available methods in carrying out science-related actions under Section 1412 ("National Drinking Water Regulations"). [1412(b)] Sec.103 OCCURRENCE DATABASE: EPA must establish an occurrence database within 3 years of enactment. In establishing the database, EPA must solicit recommendations from the Science Advisory Board, States, and other interested parties. The database is to include information on unregulated contaminants for which monitoring is required by EPA, and regulated contaminants detected at quantifiable levels (whether or not the level constitutes a violation of a standard). The information in the database must be made available to the public in a readily accessible form. [1445(g)] Sec. 126 CONTAMINANT LIST: Within 18 months of enactment and every 5 years thereafter, EPA will publish a list of contaminants not subject to any proposed or final national primary drinking water regulation and which are known or anticipated to occur in public water systems and may require regulation. In developing the list, EPA must consult with the scientific community, allow for public comment, and consider the occurrence database (established under Section 1445). [1412(b)] Sec. 102(a) DETERMINATION OF WHETHER TO REGULATE: The requirement that EPA regulate 25 additional contaminants every 3 years is eliminated. Instead, starting five years from the date of enactment and every 5 years thereafter, EPA is required to determine whether or not to regulate at least 5 of the contaminants listed as potential contaminants for regulation (see "contaminant list" above). EPA is directed to make determinations for contaminants that present the greatest public health concern. In selecting such contaminants, EPA must take into consideration the effect of contaminants upon sensitive subpopulations, such as infants, children, pregnant women, the elderly, and individuals with a history of serious illness. Within 2 years after a determination to regulate a contaminant, EPA must propose a maximum contaminant level goal and national primary drinking water regulation. EPA must publish an MCLG and final national primary drinking water regulation 18 months thereafter. [1412(b)] Sec. 102(b) (related to "25 every 3 years") and Sec. 104(a) (related to "determination") URGENT THREATS: EPA (after consultation with the Department of Health and Human Services) may issue interim regulations for any contaminant which poses an urgent threat to human health without making the usual "determination to regulate" (see above) and completing the cost-benefit analysis (see "standards and regulation development" below). However a cost-benefit analysis and the required determination (to regulate or not) must be done within 3 years after the interim rule, and the rule must be repromulgated or revised if necessary. [1412(b)] Sec. 102(a) STANDARDS AND REGULATION DEVELOPMENT RISK COMMUNICATION: In support of each regulation, EPA must make available to the public a document that specifies, to the extent practicable, the population addressed by the regulation; the central, upper and lower estimates of risk; significant uncertainties and studies that would help resolve uncertainties; and peer-reviewed studies that support or fail to support estimates. [1412(b)] Sec. 103 COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS: Whenever EPA proposes a national primary drinking water regulation, EPA must publish a cost-benefit analysis. The analysis for alternative MCLs must include, among other things, consideration of effects on sensitive subpopulations. The analysis for treatment technique regulations must take into account "as appropriate" the cost and benefit factors required for an MCL regulation. EPA may identify health benefit measurement and valua- tion methods, including consumer" willingness to pay" for reductions in health risks. [1412(b)] Sec. 103 SETTING MCLs: The new law retains the old requirement that MCLs be set as close to MCLGs "as is feasible," except when EPA determines that the cost of a standard at that level are not justified by the benefits, or when certain "risk-risk" considerations apply. [1412(b)] Sec. 104 STANDARD SETTING FLEXIBILITY: When EPA proposes an MCL, EPA must publish a determination as to whether the costs of the standard are justified by the benefits. If EPA determines that the costs of an MCL are not justified by the benefits, the law allows EPA to set an MCL that maximizes health risk reduction benefits at a cost that is justified by the benefits. [1412(b)(6)] Sec. 104 LIMITATION ON FLEXIBILITY: EPA cannot use the authority to adjust the MCL from the feasible level if the benefits are justified (at the feasible level) for systems that serve 10,000 or more persons and for systems that are unlikely to receive a variance. [1412(b)(6)] Sec. 104 RISK-RISK CONSIDERATIONS: EPA may consider "risk-risk" tradeoffs when setting an MCL. An MCL may be set at a level other than the feasible level if the technology to meet the MCL would increase health risk by (i) increasing concentration of other contaminants in drinking water, or (ii) interfering with treatment used to comply with other primary drinking water regulations. When establishing such an MCL, EPA shall (i) minimize overall risk by balancing both the risk reductions from treating the individual contaminant with possible side-effects of such treatment on concentrations of other contaminants, and (ii) assure that the combination of treatments for the individual contaminant and other contaminants shall not be more stringent than the "feasible" standard. [1412(b)(5)] Sec. 104 JUDICIAL REVIEW: EPA's determination of whether an MCL's benefits justify the cost is judicially reviewable only as part of a Court's review of the associated primary drinking water regulation. [1412(b)(6)] Sec. 104 REVIEW OF STANDARDS: The requirement for EPA to review every regulation is changed from 3 years to 6 years. EPA shall revise national primary drinking water standards, as appropriate. Any revisions must be in accordance with the new provisions of section 1412, except that each revision "shall maintain, or provide for greater, protection of the health of persons." [1412(b)(9)] Sec. 104(c) GROUND WATER DISINFECTION: EPA shall issue regulations requiring disinfection "as necessary" for ground water systems. These regulations shall be issued at any time after August 1999 and no later than the final disinfection byproducts Stage II rule. After consultation with the States, EPA shall promulgate criteria for determining whether disinfection shall be required as a treatment technique for groundwater systems. [1412(b)(8)] Sec. 107 EFFECTIVE DATE OF REGULATIONS: National primary drinking water regulations shall take effect 3 years from date of promulgation unless EPA determines an earlier date is "practicable." An additional 2 years for compliance may be provided if necessary for capital improvements. [1412(b)(10)] Sec. 108 FILTER BACKWASH: Not later than August 2000, EPA shall promulgate a regulation for filter backwash recycling within the treatment process of public water supply systems, unless such recycling has been addressed in the Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule prior to that date. [1412(b)(14)] Sec. 110 REGULATION DEVELOPMENT FUNDING: $35 million is authorized for conducting studies, assessments, and analyses in support of regulations or the development of methods for fiscal years 1996-2003. [1412(b)(3)(C)] Sec. 103 BOTTLED WATER STANDARDS: FDA is required to regulate the same contaminants in bottled water that EPA regulates in public water supplies, unless the FDA makes a finding that such a regulation is not necessary to protect public health. The standard of quality regulation for bottled water shall be "no less stringent" than the MCL established by a national primary drinking water regulation, and the regulations must include appropriate monitoring requirements. [Section 410 of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act] Sec. 305 ARSENIC, SULFATE, RADON, DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS ARSENIC STUDY PLAN: 180 days after enactment, EPA must develop an arsenic study plan to assess health risks associated with exposure to low levels of arsenic. In conducting this study, EPA must consult with, and may enter into a cooperative agreement with, the National Academy of Sciences (NAS), other Federal agencies, and interested stakeholders. [1412(b)(12)(A)] Sec. 109(a) ARSENIC DEADLINES: EPA must propose an arsenic national primary drinking water regulation by January 1, 2000 and issue a final regulation by January 1, 2001. [1412(b)(12)(A)] Sec. 109(a) SULFATE STUDY AND REGULATION: Prior to regulating sulfate, EPA and CDC must conduct a study of the dose response relationship for adverse human health effects from sulfate in drinking water, including effects on populations at greater risk. The study shall be completed not later than 30 months after the date of enactment. Sulfate must be among the 5 contaminants considered for regulation in the first 5 year cycle. If sulfate is regulated, "notification" and "alternative" water must be included as means of compliance. [1412(b)(12)(B)] Sec. 109(a) RADON STUDY BY NAS: EPA will arrange for the NAS to prepare a risk assessment for radon and an assessment of risk reduction benefits from various mitigation measures. [1412(b)(13)] Sec. 109(b) RADON STANDARD: Within 30 months of enactment, EPA will publish a health risk reduction and cost analysis associated with possible maximum contaminant levels. Within 3 years after enactment, EPA is to propose a maximum contaminant level goal and drinking water regulation for radon. The final rule must be promulgated 1 year thereafter. [1412(b)(13)] Sec. 109(b) ALTERNATIVE RADON STANDARD: EPA is required to also establish an "alternative MCL" for radon if the MCL is set a level that is "more stringent than necessary to reduce the contribution to radon in indoor air from drinking water to a concentration that is equivalent to the national average concentration of radon in outdoor air." The level of the alternative MCL is linked to average outdoor radon levels. If an alternative MCL is established, then EPA must publish guidelines for States to develop multimedia radon programs. [1412(b)(13)] Sec. 109(b) STATE MULTIMEDIA RADON PROGRAMS: Water systems may comply with the alternative MCL in a State that submits a multimedia radon program that is approved by EPA. EPA approval is required if a State's program is expected to achieve risk reduction benefits that are equal or greater than the benefits that would be achieved by implementing the (regular) MCL. EPA's approval or disapproval is required within 180 day of receipt of the State submittal. The compliance date of the radon regulation is extended for 18 months in a State if the Governor of a State submits a letter to EPA (within 90 days after the regulation is promulgated) committing to develop a multimedia program. [1412(b)(13)] Sec. 109(b) REVIEW OF MULTIMEDIA RADON PROGRAMS: EPA is to review State multimedia programs every 5 years, and may withdraw approval of programs that do not meet the approval requirements (achieving equal or greater risk reduction). Individual public water systems may also submit mitigation programs where a State fails to submit a program or where the State program is disapproved. [1412(b)(13)] Sec. 109(b) SCHEDULE FOR MICROBIAL/ DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS: EPA will promulgate an Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment rule, a Final Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule, a Stage I Disinfectants and Disinfection Bypro- ducts Rule, and a Stage II Disinfection Byproducts Rule in accordance with a February 10, 1994 Federal Register notice. If schedule delays occur, all subsequent rules must be completed no later than a revised date reflecting the intervals for the rule. [1412(b)(8)] Sec. 102 DBP STANDARD-SETTING AND RISK-RISK: EPA may use "risk-risk" considerations in setting DBP Stage I and II standards. The considerations used in proposing the DBP rule in 1994 (developed through a regulatory negotiation) "shall be treated as consistent" with the risk-risk authority for the purpose of finalizing the DBP regulations. [Free standing provision -- does not amend SDWA.] Sec. 104(b) DBP STANDARD-SETTING: EPA may not use the standard setting flexibility (1412(b)(6)(A)0 to establish an MCL in Stage I and Stage II of the DBP rule, or for Cryptosporidium. EPA may use such authority to establish ground water disinfection regulations. [1412(b)(6)(C)] Sec. 104(a)(b) DRINKING WATER STUDIES AND RESEARCH BIOLOGICAL MECHANISMS: EPA must conduct studies to understand the mechanisms by which chemicals cause adverse effects and on new approaches for studying the adverse effects of contaminant mixtures in drinking water. [1458(b)] Sec. 137 MICROBIAL/DBP STUDIES: Within 180 days of enactment EPA, after consultation with HHS and USDA, must conduct studies to support the development of the DBP/microbial pathogen rules. The authorization to conduct the studies is $12.5 million annually for 1997- 2003. The studies must include: toxicological and, if warranted, epidemiological studies to determine the adverse effects from disinfectants and disinfectant by-products; and the development of dose-response curves for Cryptosporidium and Norwalk virus. [1458(c)] Sec. 137 WATERBORNE DISEASE STUDIES AND INFORMATION: Within 2 years of enactment, EPA and CDC must conduct pilot waterborne disease occurrence studies for at least 5 major U.S. communities or public water systems and within 5 years of enactment must prepare a report on the findings and provide a national estimate of waterborne disease occurrence. EPA and CDC must establish a national training and public education campaign to educate professional health care providers and the general public about waterborne disease and the symptoms that may be caused by infectious agents, including microbial contaminants. The authorization for these activities is $3 million/year for 1997 through 2001. [1458(d)] Sec. 137 SENSITIVE SUBPOPULATIONS: Within 4 years of enactment, and periodically as new data becomes available, EPA must conduct studies to identify subpopulations at greater risk (e.g., infants, children, pregnant women) than the general public of adverse health effects from exposure to contaminants in drinking water, and report to Congress on the results of studies. [1458(a)] Sec. 137 SCREENING FOR ESTROGENIC SUBSTANCES: EPA may conduct testing under Section 408(p) of the Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act screening program for substances that may be found in sources of drinking water in which a substantial population may be exposed. [1457] Sec. 136 RESEARCH FUNDS: Funds "as may be necessary" are authorized for research, not to exceed $26.593 million, for drinking water research for fiscal years 1997-2003. Title II--Sec. 201 STRATEGIC PLAN: EPA must develop a strategic plan for drinking water research and transmit this plan to Congress and the public for review (no deadlines included for completing the plan). Title II--Sec. 202] KERR LAB: EPA is allowed to re-establish a partnership between the Kerr Environmental Research Lab and the National Center for Ground Water Research to conduct research, training, and technology transfer for ground water quality (no funds are authorized for this activity). Title II--Sec. 203 SMALL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VARIANCES, AND EXEMPTIONS AFFORDABLE TECHNOLOGIES: When promulgating new national primary drinking water regulations, EPA is to identify technologies that are affordable and which achieve compliance for categories of systems serving fewer than 10,000. Technologies may include packaged or modular systems and point-of-use (POU)/ point-of-entry (POE) units under the control of the water system (no POU for microbial contaminants). [1412(b)(4)(E)] Sec. 105 SURFACE WATER TREATMENT RULE (SWTR): EPA must within 1 year list small system technologies that meet the SWTR. Within 2 years, EPA (in consultation with the States) must list technologies that achieve compliance with all existing regulations. [1412(b)(4)(E)] Sec. 105 VARIANCE TECHNOLOGY: Whenever an affordable technology cannot be identified that meets an MCL, EPA is required to identify "variance technologies" that are affordable, but do not necessarily meet the MCL. Such technologies shall "achieve the maximum reduction or inactivation efficiency that is affordable considering the size of the system and the quality of the source water." EPA is to issue guidance on variance technologies for existing regulations within 2 years. [1412(b)(15)] Sec.111(a) SMALL SYSTEM VARIANCES: States are authorized to grant variances from standards for systems serving up to 3,300 people if the system cannot afford to comply (through treatment, an alternative source, or restructuring) and the system installs the variance technology. The terms of the variance must ensure adequate protection of human health. States can grant variances to systems serving 3,300-10,000 people with EPA approval. [1415(e)] Sec. 116 REGULATIONS FOR VARIANCES: Within 2 years, EPA, in consultation with the States, must promulgate regulations for variances. Regulations must specify procedures to be used to grant or deny variances, requirements for the installa- tion and proper operation of variance technologies, eligibility criteria for a variance, and information requirements for variance applications. [1415(e)(7)] Sec. 116(a) BLOCK ON CERTAIN VARIANCES: Variances are not available for microbial contaminants or for contaminants regulated prior to 1986. [1415(e)(6)] Sec. 116 VARIANCE TIME FRAMES: A variance must require compliance with its conditions within 3 years of the date it is issued. States may allow an additional 2 years when needed. [1415(e)(4)] States must review variances every 5 years following the compliance date established in the variance.[1415(e)(5)] Sec. 116 AFFORDABILITY CRITERIA: Within 18 months of enactment, EPA, in consultation with the States and the Rural Utilities Service of the Department of Agriculture, must publish information to assist States in developing affordability criteria to use in making variance determinations. [1415(e)(7)(B)] Sec. 116 CHANGE TO EXISTING VARIANCE PROCESS: The process for variances (retained from the old law) is streamlined by allowing a system to receive a variance "on the condition" that the system install the BAT, rather than after the installation of the technology, as previously required under SDWA. (NOTE: This change applies to ALL system sizes, not just small systems.) [1415(a)(1)(A)] Sec. 115 REVIEW OF VARIANCES: EPA must review/approve variances for systems serving 3,300-10,000 people. EPA may review and object to any proposed variance. Consumers of water systems for which a State proposes a variance may petition EPA to object to a variance. States must respond to EPA objections before granting a variance. [1415(e)(10)] Sec. 116 TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION: EPA may request information from manufacturers, States, and other interested persons on the effectiveness of commercially available treatment systems and technologies for the purpose of developing guidance or regulations related to small system technologies and variances. [1445(h)] Sec. 111(b) EXEMPTIONS: In granting exemptions, a State may consider whether a community may be defined as "disadvantaged" for the purpose of receiving DWSRF funds, or whether DWSRF funds are reasonably likely to be received. States must determine whether management or restructuring changes (or both) would improve water quality or achieve compliance before granting an exemption. Schedules for compliance must include "increments of progress" (retained from old law) or "measures to develop an alternative source of water supply" (new law). A system is not eligible for an exemption if the system receives a small system variance. The period of an exemption is lengthened from 1 year (old law) to 3 years. Eligibility for renewable exemptions is expanded from systems serving fewer than 500 service connections (approximately 1500 persons) under the old law, to systems serving fewer than 3,300 persons. Renewals are limited to a total of 6 years. [1416] Sec. 117 MONITORING INFORMATION COLLECTION: Previous law is modified to clarify that EPA may collect information from "every person who is subject to any requirement of this title or who is a grantee." By regulation, EPA may require information to assist in developing standards, determining compliance, and evaluating health risk or advising the public of risks. EPA may require information without rulemaking to determine, on a case-by-case basis, whether a person has or is acting in compliance. EPA may also require information without rulemaking to assist in developing standards, but EPA may not require the installation of treatment, testing of technologies, or analysis of monitoring samples unless EPA provides funding. [1445(a)] Sec. 125(a) REVIEW OF MONITORING REQUIREMENTS: Within two years after enactment, EPA is required to review the monitor-ing requirements for at least 12 contaminants and promulgate any necessary modifications. [1445(a)] Sec. 125(a) INTERIM MONITORING RELIEF: A State may modify the monitoring requirements for public water systems serving 10,000 or fewer persons for any regulated or unregulated contaminant (except for microbial contaminants, disinfection byproducts, or corrosion byproducts) so that no further quarterly monitoring be required if initial monitoring fails to detect the presence of the contaminant, and the State determines that the contaminant is unlikely to be detected by further monitoring. This monitoring relief will end when permanent monitoring relief is adopted or 36 months after enactment. [1418] Sec. 125(b) PERMANENT ALTERNATIVE MONITORING: A State exercising primary enforcement authority for public water systems may adopt permanent alternative monitoring requirements in accordance with EPA guidelines, if the State has an approved source water assessment program. The States alternative monitoring program must be adequate to assure compliance with, and enforcement of, applicable drinking water regulations. The alternative requirements may not apply to regulated microbial contaminants or indicators thereof (e.g., Giardia, coliform), disinfectants or disinfection by-products, or corrosion by-products. [1418] Sec. 125(b) EPA GUIDANCE: EPA must issue guidelines for alternative monitoring requirements at the same time as guidelines for source water assessments (under section 1453). EPA may also approve alternative monitoring requirements for systems in a State that does not have primacy. [1418] Sec. 125(b) UNREGULATED CONTAMINANT MONITORING: EPA must issue regulations establishing criteria for the monitoring of unregulated contaminants. Monitoring shall vary based on system size, source water, and contaminants likely to be found. Only a representative sample of systems serving 10,000 persons or fewer must monitor. EPA shall list for unregulated contaminant monitoring no more than 30 contaminants within 3 years after enactment, and every 5 years thereafter. Results of the monitoring are to be included in the national contaminant occurrence data base. [1445(a)] Sec. 125(c) SMALL AND MEDIUM SYSTEM MONITORING PLAN: Each State may develop an unregulated contaminant monitoring plan for small and medium systems (serving fewer than 10,000). EPA is required to cover the reasonable costs of testing and laboratory analysis for such plans, using funds authorized for unregulated contaminant monitoring (see below), or a $2 million DWSRF reservation. EPA shall waive the requirement for monitoring of unregulated contaminants in a State if the State demonstrates that the criteria for monitoring are not applicable in the State. [1445(a)] Sec. 125(c) RESULTS REPORTING: Water systems must provide the results of unregulated contaminant monitoring to the primacy agency (State/EPA) and must notify persons served by the system of the availability of results. [1445(a)]Sec. 125(c) AUTHORIZATION: Congress authorizes $10,000,000 per year for FYs 1997-2003 to carry out provisions for unregulated contaminant monitoring. [1445(a)] Sec. 125(c) ANALYTICAL METHODS: EPA is required to review new methods for screening regulated contaminants, and may approve them, if they are more accurate or more cost-effective than established methods approved for use in compliance monitoring. [1445(i)] Sec. 125(d) ENFORCEMENT ADMINISTRATIVE ORDERS: The process for issuing administrative compliance orders is streamlined by deleting the requirement for EPA to issue a proposed order. [1414] Sec. 113(a) PENALTY CAP: The maximum administrative penalty for violating an administrative order is raised from $5,000 to $25,000. [1414] Sec. 113(a) PENALTY PROCESS: The process for assessing an administrative penalty of $5,000 or less is streamlined by deleting the requirement for a hearing in accordance with the Administrative Procedures Act for these penalties. Requires a hearing in accordance with APA procedures if the penalty sought is between $5,000 and $25,000. [1414] Sec. 113(a) CONSOLIDATION INCENTIVE: A public water supply may submit a plan (with specific measures and schedules) for approval by EPA or a primary enforcement State for consolidation (physical or managerial) or transfer of owner- ship. If the plan is approved, no enforcement action shall be taken with respect to the specific violation identified in the approved plan prior to 2 years after plan approval or the date on which consolidation is completed, whichever is first. [1414(h)]. Sec. 113(a) ENFORCEABLE REQUIREMENTS: Defines provisions that are enforceable ("applicable requirements of this title"). Applicable requirements are defined as requirements of 1412, 1414, 1415, 1416, 1417, 1441, or 1445; regulations promulgated pursuant to those sections; schedules or requirements imposed pursuant to those sections; and requirements of, or permits issued under a State program which satisfies the requirements of section 1413 or is otherwise approved by EPA. [1414] Sec. 113(a) NOTIFICATION OF LOCAL OFFICIALS: In nonprimacy states, EPA is required to notify an appropriate locally elected public official before proceeding with an enforcement action. [1414] Sec. 113(a) EMERGENCY AUTHORITY PENALTY: The penalty for violating an order issued under Section 1431 (Emergency Powers) is increased from $5,000 per day to $15,000 per day. [1414] Sec. 113(d) IV. FUNDING FOR STATES AND WATER SYSTEMS DRINKING WATER STATE REVOLVING FUND ESTABLISHMENT: EPA is required to enter into agreements with eligible States to make capitalization grants to further the health protection objectives of SDWA. A total of $9.6 billion -- $599 million in FY94 and $1.0 billion annually -- is authorized in FY's 95-2003. To be eligible to receive a grant, a State must establish a drinking water treatment revolving loan fund and comply with other requirements of the DWSRF section. [1452(a),(m)] Sec. 130 ALLOTMENT AND ELIGIBILITY: Through fiscal year 1997, funds will be allotted by the formula used to distribute federal grants to States for drinking water program implementation ("public water supply supervision program"). A minimum grant amount of 1% will be available for all States, including Wyoming and DC. Up to 0.33% is available for allotment to other specified areas (Virgin Islands, Guam, et. al.). Funds for FY98 and beyond will be allotted based on the results of the most recent Drinking Water State Revolving Fund (DWSRF) needs survey. Eligible systems are community water systems and non-profit non-community water systems. No loans can be made to Federal systems. [1452(a),(i)] Sec. 130 LINK TO PRIMACY: States that lose primacy in the future, except for Wyoming, will not be eligible for DWSRF grants. [1452(a)(1)(F)] Sec. 130 LINK TO CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: EPA is required to withhold DWSRF funds from States that do not set up capacity development programs (20% of DWSRF grant starting in FY99 for new system authority; and 10% in 2001,15% in 2002, and 20% in 2003 for capacity development strategies). Withholding for all capacity development purposes is capped at 20% total. [1452(a)(1)(G)] Sec. 130 LINK TO OPERATOR CERTIFICATION: EPA is required to withhold 20% of DWSRF funds if a State does not meet the requirement for operator certification programs. [1452(a)(1)(G)] Sec. 130 USE OF FUNDS: DWSRF funds can be used for loans, loan guarantees, source of reserve and security for leveraged loans (proceeds of which are placed in the DWSRF), and other uses as allowed in the Act. Funds may be used by a public water system only to "facilitate compliance with national primary drinking water regulations" and "significantly further the health protection objectives of this title." Small systems (fewer than 10,000 persons) are to receive 15% of annual assistance from a State's DWSRF, to the extent such funds can be obligated for eligible projects. Disadvan- taged systems may receive loan subsidies (including forgiveness of principal) up to 30% of a State's DWSRF annual assistance. [1452(a)(2)] Sec. 130 INTENDED USE PLANS: States must annually prepare, after providing for public review and comment, an Intended Use Plan that identifies how the DWSRF funds will be used. States must give highest priority to projects that address the most serious risks to public health, are necessary to achieve compliance, and assist systems most in need on a per household basis. Types of assistance which may be made using State loan funds are specifically defined. [1452(b), 1452(f)] Sec. 130 STATE MATCH: States must contribute an amount equal to 20% of the total federal contribution. State funds must be received on or before the date federal funds are received, except that States may delay the deposit of funds until no later than September 30, 1999 for grant payments made for fiscal years 1994-1997. [1452(e)] Sec. 130 SET-ASIDES: (Prior to allotment to States) $10,000,000 per year is reserved for health effects research and, starting in FY 1998, $2,000,000 per year for unregulated contaminant monitoring. An amount up to 2% of the funds appropriated may be reserved by EPA for technical assistance, and may be used to supplement fund-ing for technical assistance under Section 1442(e). EPA may use up to 1.5% of funds for grants to Indian Tribes and Alaska Native Villages for public water systems. Funds must also be reserved for operator training cost reimbursement if there is no separate appropriation. [1452(i),(n),(o),(q); 1419(d)(4)] Sec 130, Sec 123 OTHER USES OF FUNDS: (After allotment to States) Up to 4% of State allotment may be used by the State for administration of the fund. An additional 2% may be used for small system technical assistance. Up to ten percent may be used for a combination of the following: PWSS activities, State capacity development strategies, operator certification programs, and source water protection programs. [1452(g)] Sec. 130 Up to 15% may be used for a combination of the following: loans for the acquisition of land or conservation easements, loans to implement voluntary source water protection measures; technical and financial assistance to water systems as part of a State capacity development strategy; delineations/assessments of source water protection areas; and establishment and implementation of wellhead protection programs. No single item can receive greater than 10%. [1452(a)] Sec. 130 COMBINED FINANCIAL ADMINISTRATION: Financial administration can be combined with other funds, such as the Clean Water Act DWSRF, as long as separate accounts are maintained. The authority to establish assistance priorities and oversight responsibilities will be carried out by the primacy agency. [1452(g)] Sec. 130 TRANSFER OF FUNDS: Anytime after one year after a State establishes a DWSRF, but prior to fiscal year 2002, the Governor of a State may transfer 33% of the funds in the Drinking Water DWSRF to the Clean Water Act DWSRF. The same dollar amount may be transferred from the Clean Water Act DWSRF to the Drinking Water DWSRF. Within 4 years, EPA must submit a report to Congress regarding implementation of the transfer provisions. [Free standing provision -- Title III, Sec. 302] REGULATIONS AND GUIDANCE: EPA is required to publish DWSRF regulations and guidance as necessary. The regulations and guidance will address how States commit and expend allotted funds, use funds efficiently, prevent waste, fraud and abuse, and avoid the use of funds for expansion of public water systems. Guidance and regulations must also ensure that States and public water systems use accounting, audit, and fiscal procedures that conform to generally accepted accounting standards. [1452(g)(3)] Sec. 130 AUDITS: States are required to publish and submit to EPA a report every 2 years that describes program activities and expenditures and includes the most recent audit of the State's program. [1452(g)(4)] Sec. 130 NEEDS SURVEY: EPA is required to perform an assessment of the capital improvement needs of all eligible public water systems, including Native American systems, and submit a report within 180 days of passage of the Act. Addi- tional surveys will be conducted every 4 years thereafter. [1452(h)] Sec. 130 WATER CONSERVATION: Within two years of enactment of the 1996 amendments to the SDWA, EPA must publish guidelines for water conservation plans. Within a year of pubication of the guidelines, a State may, as a condition of receiving a DWSRF loan, require a water system to submit a water conservation plan. [1455(a),(b)] Sec. 134 V. OTHER PROVISIONS PUBLIC WATER SUPPLY SUPERVISION TIME FRAME FOR STATE PRIMACY: In order to maintain primary enforcement responsibility for regulations promulgated under the SDWA, States must adopt regulations that are no less stringent than federal regulations within 2 years of the date of promulgation of the federal regulations. EPA may grant an extension of 2 additional years if EPA determines that the extension is necessary and justified. [1413(a)(1)] Sec. 112(a) ADMINISTRATIVE PENALTY REQUIREMENT FOR PRIMACY: As a condition of primacy, States must have the authority for administrative penalties. Specifically, for systems serving more than 10,000 persons, States must be able to assess not less than $1,000 per day per violation. For smaller systems, States must have authority which is adequate to ensure compliance. The State may establish a maximum amount of administrative penalties which may be imposed on a public water system. [1413(a)] Sec. 113(b) INTERIM PRIMACY: States with up-to-date primacy programs are considered to have interim primacy for new regulations promulgated by EPA beginning on the effective date of the State regulations adopted and submitted by the State, and ending at such time as EPA disapproves a State program. [Section 1413(c)] Sec. 112(a) PUBLIC WATER SYSTEM SUPERVISION GRANT: The authorization for carrying out State Public Water System Supervision Programs (PWSS) is increased to $100 million for each of fiscal years 1997-2003. [1443(a)] Sec. 124 EPA PRIMACY: EPA is given authority to use funds from a State's portion of the Public Water System Supervision Program grant to implement the program where the State does not have primary enforcement responsibility (primacy). EPA may cover a shortfall in funds by using a portion of a State's DWSRF allocation to carry out primary enforcement authority. If such funds are used, EPA must carry out all activities required of a State. [1443(a)] Sec. 124, [1452(a)(1)(F)] Sec. 130 FEDERAL AGENCIES SOVEREIGN IMMUNITY: Contains a clear waiver of sovereign immunity for federal agencies with respect to all federal, State and local requirements. Provides EPA with authority to issue an administrative penalty order if EPA finds that a federal agency has violated an applicable requirement of this title. The penalty may not exceed $25,000 per day per violation. Funds collected by a State from the federal government in fines or penalties must be used by the State for projects designed to improve or protect the environment or defray the costs of environmental protection or enforcement. [1447] Sec. 129(a) REVIEW OF ORDERS: Any interested party may obtain review in US District Court of an administrative penalty order issued by EPA to a federal agency. [1447] Sec. 129(a) CITIZEN ACTION: A citizen may bring an action for the collection of a penalty against a federal agency that fails to pay a penalty by the date which is 18 months after the effective date of the final order. The citizen is required to notify the Attorney General and the affected federal agency 60 days before the suit is filed. [1447] Sec. 129(b) MISCELLANEOUS LEAD LEACHING STANDARD: If a voluntary standard for the leaching of lead from new plumbing fittings and fixtures is not established within one year of the effective date of the Act, then EPA must promulgate regulations setting a performance based standard for lead leaching levels from such components. (Note: A voluntary standard is now in place.) [1417] Sec. 118 LEAD PROHIBITION: Two years after enactment, it becomes illegal for any pipe or plumbing fixture that is not lead-free to be introduced into commerce. The exception is pipes used in manufacturing or industrial processing. It will also be illegal, two years after enactment, to sell solder or flux that is not lead-free. Solder that is not lead-free may be sold if it bears a prominent label stating that it is illegal to use it in the installation or repair of plumbing providing water for human consumption. [1417] Sec. 118 LIMITED ALTERNATIVE TO FILTRATION: States may allow unfiltered water systems with surface water sources to use treatment other than filtration. In order to qualify for alternative treatment, a water system must have an uninhabited, undeveloped watershed in consolidated ownership and have control over access to and activities in the watershed. The alternative treatment must ensure greater removal or inactivation efficiencies of pathogenic organisms than would be achieved by the combination of filtration and chlorine disinfection required by section 1412 (b)(7)(C). [1412(b)(7)(C)] Sec. 106 GRANTS FOR ALASKA NATIVE VILLAGES: The Administrator is authorized to make grants to the State of Alaska to pay 50 percent of the cost of improving sanitation for rural and Alaska Native villages. Grants will be for development and construction of public water and wastewater systems and also for training, technical assistance, and educational programs. The State may use up to 4 percent of the amount of the grant for related administrative expenses. EPA is required to consult with the State of Alaska to prioritize the needs of individual villages. Authorization for this provision is at $15,000,000 for each FY'97-2000. Title III--Sec. 303 RELATIONSHIP OF GRANTS TO DWSRF FUND: A "Sense of the Congress" states that appropriations for grants should not be provided for watershed protection in New York City's watersheds, sanitation improvements at colonias, or sanitation improvements for Alaska Native Villages if such appropriations would prevent adequate funding for state revolving loan funds. Title III--Sec 304 WASHINGTON AQUEDUCT: Congress grants consent for the District of Columbia, Arlington County, VA and the city of Falls Church to establish an entity to operate, maintain and manage the Washington Aqueduct. The Secretary of the Army is required to develop a plan, within 1 year, for the transfer of the Washington Aqueduct to a non-Federal entity. The Corps of Engineers is authorized to borrow up to $29 million in 1997, 424 million for 1998, and $22 million for 1999 to carry out capital improvements until the time of transfer. ( Title III--Sec. 304.) The Secretary of the Army may not pass on the costs of an enforcement penalty to the customers of the Washington Aqueduct system. [1447] Sec.129(c) DRINKING WATER FUNDS FOR COLONIAS: EPA and other appropriate Federal agencies are authorized to award grants to Arizona, California, New Mexico, and Texas, to provide assistance (up to 50% of project costs) to colonias where the residents are subject to a significant health risk attributable to the lack of access to an adequate and affordable drinking water system. Appropriations of $25,000,000 for each of the fiscal years 1997 through 1999 is authorized. [1456] Sec. 135 WASTEWATER FUNDS FOR COLONIAS: The Administrator is authorized to make grants for planning, design, construction, or improvement of sewers, treatment works, and appropriate connections for wastewater treatment for colonias. Grants cannot exceed 50 percent of the cost of carrying out any project. $25 million is authorized for this provision in fiscal years 1997 through 1999. Title III--Sec. 307 ZEBRA MUSSEL CONTROL: The Nonindigenous Aquatic Nuisance Prevention and Control Act of 1990 is amended to include Lake Champlain at 16 U.S.C. 4701(a). Provision references zebra mussel control in Lake Champlain. Title III--Sec. 308 DEFINITIONAL CHANGE FOR ANALYTIC METHODS: Modifies the pre-existing requirement that national primary drinking water regulations (NPDWR) contain quality control and testing procedures for compliance purposes to now require "accepted methods for" quality control and testing procedures. After the promulgation of a NPDWR, EPA is allowed to "add equally effective" quality control and testing procedures through guidance published in the Federal Register. [1401] Sec. 101(a) DEFINITION OF COMMUNITY/NONCOMMUNITY SYSTEM: "Community water system" is defined as a public water system that has at least 15 service connections or serves 25 persons year-round. "Noncommunity water system" is defined as a public water system that is not a community water system. [1401] Sec. 101(a) OPEN CONVEYANCES: The general definition of "public water system" (PWS) is broadened from water systems that deliver water through pipes to include systems that use "construct-ed conveyances." However, certain connections that might otherwise qualify a system as a public water system under the broadened definition are excluded from consideration where: the water is not used for "residential uses"; alternative water is provided for drinking and cooking; or water for drinking, cooking, and bathing is treated (centrally or by point of entry). Alternative or treated water must provide a level of health protection equivalent to the applicable standard(s). A transition period of 2 years is provided for compliance. [1401] Sec. 101(b) RETURN FLOW: Repeals Section 3013 of PL 102-486 (Energy Act). Deletes Energy Act provision which encourages the use of heat exchange units. Title III ADDITIONAL ASSISTANCE FOR WATER INFRASTRUCTURE AND WATERSHEDS (Title IV--does not amend the SDWA) GRANT AUTHORITY: EPA may provide technical and financial assistance in the form of grants to States for water supply improvements and for source water quality programs consistent with Section 319 of the Clean Water Act (to address contaminants for the purpose of making supplies usable for water systems). Not more than 30% of funds appropriated may be used for Section 319 activities. Title IV USE OF GRANTS: As a condition for receiving a grant, a State must ensure that assistance will be used in the most cost-effective manner. The Federal share of activities funded with grants shall be 50 percent. Title IV FUNDING LEVELS: Annual funding of $25 million is authorized for grants for fiscal years 1997-2003. An additional $25 million is authorized for each fiscal year 1997-2003 if the appropriations for the Drinking Water DWSRF exceed 75% of the authorized level ($1 billion is authorized for the DWSRF). Title IV -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Click here to return to the Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Search EPA OGWDW Home Office of Water Comments Revised February 12, 1999 http://www.epa.gov/OGWDW/SDWAsumm.html ////////////////////////////////// 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 H菎ƍьѥää䣚ššššššΡšΡšΡΡΡεεΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡίΡΡΡΡ͡ΡΡΡΡeΡΡΡšΡΡΡΡšΡΡ΁šΡ΁šŁŁääϤЦ暮g+>>+X>+Xg>+?,,/-2R/  k>宀ƍƌϟϤŤŁŁŁŁšššššΡšΡΡΡεΡίΡΡΡΡΡšίΡšΡΡšΡΡίeΡšΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡšššίΡššΡΡΡšΡΡΡšŁŁŁڤڤßХ樳ᙚg>+>><>>W+-'XX1>D-  𓑑B卥݌жЬۤŁššššššŁššššΡεΡΡΡΡΡšΡΡšΡΡΡšΡΡΡΡΡšΡΡΡšΡΡΡΡššΡšššΡŤŤääЬƮꝐ>>>ggXXg>>++1>N+X++>>gg,- E kk/Ьߣ΁šŁšΡ΁ššššššΡεΡšΡΡšΡΡΡΡΡΡšΡΡίΡΡΡššΡšššššššŁŁŁŁŁŁŁŤڤϤ϶ä϶Ϧ隨>>>gg>X>>X>+2>?X>1X>g>- hѥ۶۶ßÁŁšššΡΡΡšššΡšΡšΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡΡšΡΡΡΡšΡΡΡΡΡΡšΡšššššššššššşŁŤŤŤŁŁŤäääڤЭg>>>>+XWXXXXXg;g>+N2B 𑑄 葏 k宮‮ƥƌƌѦϟ϶϶äڤŁššΡšΡšΡΡΡšΡΡΡεΡΡΡΡšššΡššΡΡšΡΡššššššššššššŁŤääÁä϶㧎跷跷g1++>++g]+<&g>>g*>-h0HH 7Lk E E  khii~Пß䣣ššΡšΡΡšΡšΡΡšΡΡΡššššššššΡššΡššΡšššΡšššššÁÁŁŤäŤää϶ä϶϶Ϭ꧎k脄 khg>?+>>>gW>>1g>h E 3a0H E u kkkkƍѥܬܟßڤŤŤÁäššššΡššššššΡšššššššššššššššššššŤääääää۶Ϥ϶϶ k -g>>NXX>1>G1++<2XN/0H EEE E 0H E E 莏h䐨ݰѭ۶äП϶äڟŁŁΡššΡššŁšššššŁΡšššššššššššššššššššššäşڤääϤϟϤϊϤßЬЬϤ϶жж  膆H g>>g*X2,/okH'D0  (60H E  hݍƍжڟϟÁššŁššΡŁΡšΡšΡΡΡššššššššššߟڟڟ϶ϟßП۟ϟϟϤ۟ϟ϶ЬЬЬ誓 ggg><^0   7k| E E L4H| E E 脧ѥЬжڟßššš΁šΡΡΡΡšΡšΡΡΡššššššڟäڟڟ۟۟Пܟܟߟ۟۟ж۶жߟ۟ϟ϶ж϶۬ЬЦЬƌ  g+2h k57H E B0H HHHE E E E E 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