Absolute
Time and Distance
By
Thomas J. Besmer Sr.
tjbesmer@comcast.net
Murphys, CA 95247
February 2005
Table of Contents
3. Speed Of Light In
Different Media
This paper is about measurements. It is about time and distance measurements. All measurements are referenced to standards defined by the scientific community and these standards include time and distance. The time and distance definitions (standards) do not change because they are definitions. They are a reality; they have been experienced and depended on in the development of the objective real world of science.
Scientists have wrestled for years with a case where time and distance depend on physical determination and judgment. And where time and distance exist in a subjective world contingent on the movement of the observed or the observer. This subjective world is the result of the Speed of Light (SOL) being relative to nothing as in the Special Relativity Theory (SRT). This article presents and develops a new concept that treats the SOL "c" as a variable under all conditions. It is meant to preempt the concept that the SOL is a "universal constant" as postulated by Einstein
This section is about the works of
Einstein studied the works of
The
highlights of
1. Gravitational Law: F = Öm1m2 / R2 force between two bodies of mass 1 and mass 2 follow an inverse square law. This is a Field of Force (not a field).
2. Media of interaction between two bodies in a field of force is empty space allowing simultaneity, which indicates that force is not a single dynamic entity. This is called action at a distance
3. Gravity force and inertia are separate entities. Bodies set up a gravity force field and inertia is something that happens in the gravity force field. Inertia is a measure of the force that resists a change in velocity (gravitational acceleration).
4. Time and distance are absolutes in a system of Cartesian coordinates.
On the heels of
It is important to understand that Maxwell's work stressed
fields, which solve many problems that cannot be solved by "action at a
distance" (
Maxwell's work (media transmittal) gave some cause to
question the work of
Maxwell's works explained:
1. The relationship between electricity and magnetism. Maxwell's four famous equations explained and defined these relationships. His first two equations indicate the nature of the continuity of electric and magnetic force and the second two tell how their field forces affect each other when changing in time in anyway.
2. He defined a field as the media of travel between electric charges and represented them graphically as lines in the media.
3. He demonstrated electromagnetic waves and also showed that light was an electromagnetic wave. He measured the speed of these waves. He defined a media of travel (Ether, which is now considered non existent) analogous to sound waves traveling in air. There was a plan to name the Ether as a reference of absolute rest. The experiment (Michelson/Morley) failed.
4. Time and distance are absolutes in this system of Cartesian coordinates.
Today's technologies allow the scientist to measure the
speed of light in many different media of transmittal. The speed of light is a constant in space, it
is a constant on earth, it is a constant on the moon, it is a constant for
different materials, etc. Its constant
value is different for each of the above media.
The speed of light being a constant is not being questioned. The SOL, being
a universal constant, is being questioned.
This paper is not attempting to discredit the work
of Einstein. Einstein has been voted the
man of the century. He won his Nobel
Prize for explaining the Photoelectric effect, which also was one of the
justifications of a need for Quantum Physics to extend Classical Physics. He can be thought of as the Father of Nuclear
Energy through his famous equation E = mc2 (see development and
explanation in Note below). Much
of his work was consumed with his relativity theories, which he claimed
extended
This paper deals directly with a new concept that treats the SOL "c" as a variable. Because it is found the created world of Einstein does not agree with the real world of objective measurements. When the Speed of light is treated as a variable, time and distance remain in the objective real world according to existing scientific standards.
Note
The famous equation E = mc2 (E is energy, m is a
change in mass, and c is the speed of light) associated with Einstein and the
Theory of Relativity is not being questioned.
This famous equation doesn’t care if the SOL is a universal
constant. It can be derived by treatment
of
m = m0/(1 - v2/c2)1/2
And by substitution: εe = d(mv)/dt = m = m0 dv/dt /(1
- v2/c2)1/2 Reference 1, section 1-8, page 15
"Mass-Energy Relation" gives a
full treatment for developing E = mc2 from the above substitution. It also shows how it reverts back to
This above "Note" portrays that E = mc2
does not depend on the SOL being relative to nothing and it doesn't care
if "c" is a variable or a universal constant. "c" is a
constant but that constant can change depending on the media i.e. Its value is
different for each planet, it is different in space, it is in different materials
etc. E = mc2 is a special
case of
This paper makes reference to absolute time and absolute distance. There are no absolutes but only references invented by man. When addressing time and distance, it is used as a reference to scientific standards by the author in lieu of subjective time and distance as that dictated by Special theory of Relativity.
Light speed presented in Optics changes whenever a new media of travel is encountered. In general a train of light waves are partially reflected and they change direction as they cross the boundary surface or change from one medium to another medium. The change in direction is said to be a refracted wave. Every material has an index of refraction.
The index of refraction of a medium is the property usually tabulated rather than the Speed of Light (SOL) in the medium. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio of the velocities in the two media.
The index of refraction n = c/v (1)
In this case "c" represents some upper limit of the velocity of light (i e the SOL in our atmosphere compared to the velocity in some substance). This paper is an ad hoc approach to prove that "c" is a general variable no matter what the media or reference.
Note
The scientific community is programmed to think of "c" as the SOL in space and as a "universal constant". A new concept is introduced (section 1.4) that shows that the speed of light is a variable in all media without limit and it is dependent on the existing Gravity Force field and wavelength of the light.
From (1) above, it follows that v/v' = n'/n (2)
Where "v" is velocity of propagation in one medium and "v'" represents the velocity of propagation in the other medium.
It is an established fact that the SOL in a material substance depends on wavelength and hence its index of refraction is also a function of wavelength. "v" varies according to f x l or velocity equals frequency times wavelength. For a medium change frequencies do not change. Therefore the wavelength must change. And any substance that offers resistance to SOL displays dispersive properties for light with an index of refraction that is a function of wavelength. A prism separates white light into its components of red through violet. Deviation of a prism increases with increasing index of refraction and the index of refraction is a function of wavelength. Thus violet is deviated the most and red least. The speed of light in water is 1/4 of that in our atmosphere giving an offset to objects in water because wavelength is 1/4 of that in the atmosphere (see reference 11, chapter 2 for more details).
The frequencies of light we observe, whether in a vacuum or other medium, are functions of velocity and wavelength, v = fl. It is not a simple function of E = hf. All media that allow the transmittal of light or electromagnetic radiation are dispersive in nature. The SOL in all substances depends on wavelength and all media offer some resistance to flow or transmittal of electromagnetic radiation. All media have a dielectric constant and a magnetic permeability, which cause the speed of light to change. These properties (dielectric constant) and (magnetic permeability) cannot be divorced from wavelength changes because of the resistance they offer to flow. They are intrinsic to electric fields and magnetic fields, respectively. They are an integral part of the wave equation derived from Maxwell’s equations.
Below relationships are presented as a matter of review and are very much part of electromagnetic radiation. This assumes "c" is a universal constant with all values for the variation of light speed referenced to it. In various media, the wavelength, frequency, and radiation speed will differ according to the variations predicted by equations 3, 4, and 5 below. These considerations show that the speed of light varies and a conversion exists for all media of travel.
c (vacuum) = 1/square root ofÎ0m0, Î0 is the dielectric constant (space) (3)
m0 is the magnetic permeability (space)
Zintrinsic = square root of m/Î, 377 ohms for free space (4)
c/v = square root of Îm/Î0m0, Where v represents the speed (5)
of radiation in different media
Difficulties and disagreements in the scientific community are resolved with dialogue about information that denies or extends the subject matter being considered. It is best to back it with what has the possibility of taking its place. If the speed of light is not a universal constant then how does it vary from medium to medium? Equation 1 is introduced without proof. By substitution of hf (photon energy) for E, equation 2 is derived
"c" is a variable and a function of wavelength and gravity field. Proof and justification for equations 1 & 2 follows in sections 1.5 and 1.6.
The energy equation: E = heB/G Where e is electric field, (1)
B is magnetic vector potential
G is gravity force field
hf = heB/G, and f = eB/2πG, thus c = eBλ/2πG (2)
This section and the next have the sole purpose of justifying the new energy equation. The Bohr Magneton is the starting point for the derivation of the new energy equation. The author first derived this equation in 1969 while working on a project of applied atomic physics. In the past 30 years there have been many developments and ideas that finally led to the concept that it could be applied in many other areas.
There are magnetic moments M associated with an electron moving in an atom that are proportional to both the orbital and spin angular momenta for an electron in a particular shell. They are expressed in terms of the Bohr Magnetron. The magnetic moment times the magnetic vector potential (B field intrinsic or extrinsic to the atom) is an energy term that relates to energy changes at the atomic level.
Bohr Magnetron M = he/m
Where: h is Planck's constant divided by 2π, e is electronic charge, and m is electron mass.
Energy E = MB = he/m B (1)
An electron wave can be thought of as an isolated energy state that is capable of moving (or positioning itself) in a shell about the atom. The following is meant as review to demonstrate electron wave movement.
Equation (1) can also be expressed as: E = he2πR2f/mc (2)
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because intrinsic B = πR2ef/c = iA, c is speed of light |
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by definition this is the electron movement in an orbit about the nucleus |
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Where: i is current due to the electron moving around the nucleus, A is the area of the orbit, and f = w/2π, w is due to a combination of spin and angular frequency of rotation. |
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Differentiating (2) with respect to R, dE/dR = 2he2πfR/mc (orbit change/photon energy) |
dE/dR = e2wRl, where l = h/mc from DeBroglie (3)
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2πR = nl, where n = 1, 2, 3, etc. Equation 3 can be thought of as an electron changing its orbit producing a photon. It is a single energy state of the atom. |
Equation (1) of section 1.5 is an isolated energy state. In all cases of dealing with energy properties of an electron, isolated energy states are a beginning point. Exploring this beginning; divide the numerator and denominator of equation (1) of section 1.5 by 1/R2 where R is the radial distance of the electron to the nucleus. The following is obtained:
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E = he/R2 divided by m/R2 times B |
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e/R2 = e-electric field, m/R2 = G (definition), and B is magnetic vector potential |
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Through this algebraic manipulation, equation (1) of section 1.5 transforms to energy equation (4) and it remains an isolated energy state. |
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E =
h eB/G new energy equation of state (4)
Does this new equation agree with previous knowledge of particulate isolated energy states of an electron?
Consider equation (4) and differentiate it with respect to R. If it has truly not changed anything, the result will be the same as equation (3) above.
Differentiating:
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dE/dR = dE/de de/dR + dE/dB dB/dR + dE/dG dG/dR (5) |
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Solving
from equation 4: (a) dE/de = hB/G,
(b) dE/dB = he/G, (c) dE/dG = -heB/G2 |
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Solving
continued: (d) de/dR = -2e/R3
(e) dB/dR = 2πRef/c, (f) dG/dR = -2m/R3 |
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Combining (a) through (f) in equation 5: dE/dR = h [B/G (-2e/R3) + e/G (2πRef/c) + -eB/G2 (2m/R3)] Solving: |
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B/G = πR4ef/mc, where B = πR2ef/c and G = m/R2 e/G = e/m, e = e/ R2 and G = m/R2 eB/G2 = πR4e2f/m2c e = e/ R2, B = πR2ef/c, and G2 = m2/R4 |
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Substituting: dE/dR = h[-2πRfe2/mc + 2πRfe2/mc + 2πRfe2/mc] |
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dE/dR = h/mc times e2Rw = le2Rw |
The
result of this differentiation is identical to the previously derived dE/dR (equation 3 of section 1.5). The first approach was straightforward and
simple. The second approach although
complex using partial derivatives was necessary to stress the validity of the
energy equation expressed as a combination of fields and a force field. An atomic quantum concept for an isolated
energy state has been converted and has incorporated the field equations of Maxwell
and
Finally, it can be stated that at the atomic level, an energy equation can represent an isolated energy state of the electron. The e and B fields are considered as two aspects of a single phenomenon, an electromagnetic wave whose source is a moving charge (the electron is in a stable atom). Equation 4 is a new concept and it expresses an energy state of an electron. The new force field equation in conjunction with quantum concepts is used to complement energy level changes. Its development and validation have just been considered.
Continuing with the derivation, it is convenient to deal with the established wave as an energy term. The Poynting Vector by definition is energy at a point for a wave and is the cross product of eB.
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eB º S the Poynting Vector E = h eB/G new energy equation of state and E = h S/G Substituting for E: |
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E = hf |
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Substituting: f = (1/2π) S/G |
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and f = c/l |
Therefore c = (1/2π) Sl/G (6)
"c" is now a variable and that varies directly as a wave
eB
and inversely to
The new energy concept and variation in the SOL can be approached in the same manner as the way the SOL varies between media (section 1.3). From medium to medium the SOL varies as a function of l (wavelength) and G (gravity force field) according to equation (6).
Consider the following for the variables involved.
E = h/2 π times S/G (equation 4 above)
And
hf = h/2 π times S/G
f = S/2πG = c/l, where "c" is velocity for some medium and l is wavelength
Therefore c = Sl/2πG (equation 6) for any change is "c" there is a variation in l/G. But G is a constant for each moon, planet, star etc. so l must vary.
Differentiating equation (6)
dc = dc/dl + dc/dG (7)
Solving for the above partial derivatives:
dc = S/2πG - Sl/π G2
For constant G, dc/dG = 0
And dc = dc/dl = S/2πG
The change in c is inversely proportional to Gravity force field G.
If the earth is used as a reference the speed of light changes for each planet, moon, star, galaxy, black hole, etc. The speed of light increases on the moon, decreases on Jupiter and is zero for a black hole. Between the planets or the stars or any other entity with a fixed gravity, there is a gradient
dc/dG = -Sl/πG2.
And in this case l and G are varying. So in space both variables must be considered. They both have an effect on the variation of "c". The speed of light is a variable and has no upper limit. It is a function of the properties of our galaxy, solar system and universe. A rejuvenated world of absolute space and time has now been reintroduced. The task now remains to understand and harness the gravity gradient as a means of travel.
New developments and the discovery that the tenets of the SRT are not cast in cement SOL is a variable) indicate the possibility that the General Relativity Theory (GRT), which is the result of th