............................................................................................................. Absolute Time and Distance
1.8 Speed of Light in Different Media
All measurements are referenced to standards defined by the scientific community and the standards for time and distance are of special interest. The time and distance definitions (standards) do not change because they are definitions. They are a reality; they have been experienced and depended on in the development of the objective real world of science.
By accepting Einstein’s Special Relativity Theory (SRT), the objective world for measuring time and distance presents a challenge. Scientists have wrestled with this case where time and distance depend on physical determination and judgment. In Einstein’s world of relativity, time and distance exist in a subjective world contingent on the movement of the observed or the observer. This subjective world is the result of “c” being relative to nothing according to the tenet for Einstein’s SRT.
This article is about the works of
Einstein studied the works of
A physical determination (the failed Michelson/Morley experiment) prompted or at least added credence to the postulate by Einstein that says, “c” is a universal constant, an initial condition. As a result, a principle of transformation and permutation for time and distance is necessary for speeds approaching the Speed of Light (SOL). According to his work, nothing can ever reach the speed of light but a transformation does take place at some speed.
Armed with his new mathematics and Kepler’s
laws and graphical representations,
1. His first law of motion says a body continues at a constant speed unless acted on by some outside force.
2. His second law says an outside force causes a body to accelerate in the direction of the force and is inversely proportional to the mass of the body (F = ma).
3. His third law says for action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
4. Gravitational Law: F = Öm1m2 / R2 force between two bodies of mass 1 and mass 2 follow an inverse square law. This is a Field of Force (not a field).
5. Media of interaction between two bodies in a gravity field of force is empty space allowing simultaneity, which indicates that force is not a single dynamic entity. This is called action at a distance
6. Gravity force and inertia are separate entities. Bodies set up a gravity force field and inertia is something that happens in the gravity force field. Inertia is a measure of the force that resists a change in velocity (gravitational acceleration).
7. Time and distance are absolutes in a system of Cartesian coordinates.
On the heels of
Equation 1: div ε = 4πρ, ρ is charge density and ε is electric field.
In empty space:
div ε = 0
Equation 2: div B = 0 indicating that there are no isolated magnetic charges as exists for electric fields. These first two equations indicate the nature of continuity of the electric and magnetic forces.
Equation 3: curl of ε = - 1/c δB/δt is the law for the electrical effect of changing magnetic fields. The factor “c” is necessary to relate to the electrostatic units of ε to the electromagnetic units of B and it is in fact a velocity of the same magnitude of light in space.
Equation 4: curl B = 4πJ/c + 1/c δE/δt shows that B depends on conduction current and displacement current. Equations 3 and 4 tell how electric and magnetic forces vary as a result of fields changing with time.
The above equations predicted to Maxwell a self-propelled electromagnetic wave, which he derived. Maxwell also deduced the wave theory for light from these electromagnetic field forces. It opened to the world the science of optics. Optics presents the SOL as a function of the media in which it is measured.
Maxwell’s works, equations, electromagnetic wave
derivation, and the speed of the waves are a precursor to Optics. Implicit in Maxwell’s equations is the constant
speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum.
From his equations comes a constant “c” which is the ratio of unit size
between electrostatic and electromagnetic systems. Einstein postulates without proof that “c” is
a universal constant and is in fact the SOL in all media of transmittal. It is his main tenet of his SRT. Even though “c” is a universal truth, it does
not make it the speed of light a universal constant in all media of
travel. The speed of electromagnetic
waves in space is a constant (c) and in the same manner, the waves are a
constant of a different value in other media of transmittal. Maxwell included a variance of transmittal
according to electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of the media of
transmittal. The laws of Optics show how
SOL varies for different media.
Electromagnetic waves travel at a constant speed. The value of that speed is contingent on the media of travel of the wave. The laws of Optics, electric permittivity, magnetic permeability, gravity and wavelength in the media of transmittal define the variation in SOL. A train of light waves change direction as they cross the boundary surface (one medium to another). The change in direction is a refracted wave. Snell’s Law expresses it mathematically.
Snell’s Law
n
sinα = n’
sinα’
Where α and α’ are the angles between a light beam and the normal to the interface between the two media of indices n and n’. The index of refraction n = c/v where “c” is the SOL and in all literature is considered Einstein’s universal constant-186,000 mi/sec.
Maxwell's works is better explained using fields because forces on charges in electric fields and the interaction of moving
charges in magnetic fields lends itself to mathematical expediency. The
forces are vectors and they combine as vector sums. The field concept introduced by Maxwell and
his contemporaries define a media of interaction for particles, objects,
electric charges, etc. He found field
theory could explain the movement of electric charge and predict magnetic
properties due to the movement of charge.
Fields, unlike
Maxwell's work (media transmittal) gave some cause to
question the work of
Maxwell's works explained:
1. Maxwell's four famous equations explained and defined the relationship between electricity and magnetism relationship. His first two equations indicate the nature of the continuity of electric and magnetic force and the second two tell how their field forces affect each other when changing in time in anyway.
2. He defined a field as the media of travel between electric charges and represented them graphically as lines in the media.
3. He demonstrates and defines electromagnetic waves and shows that light is an electromagnetic wave. He measured the speed of these waves. He defined a media of travel for light waves (Ether, which some now consider non-existent) which are analogous to sound waves traveling in air. There was a plan to name the Ether as a reference of absolute rest. The experiment (Michelson/Morley) failed.
4. Time and distance are absolutes in his system of Cartesian coordinates.
Today's technologies allow the scientist to measure the
speed of light in many different media of transmittal. The speed of light is a constant in space, it
is a constant on earth, it is a constant on the moon, it is a constant for different
materials, etc. Its constant value is
different for each of these media. The
speed of light being a constant is not being questioned but “c” being a
universal constant according to Einstein is being denied.
Einstein is the father of nuclear energy through his
famous equation E = mc2 (see development and explanation in the
Prologue). However, much of the
results of his work with relativity do not extend
It is the purpose of this book to demonstrate that Einstein’s postulate is replaced by a variable SOL, that the bureau of standards for time and distance hold and a measurement transformation is unnecessary.
From SOL article, a variable SOL = Sl/2πG
where S ≡ eB (Poynting vector), λ =
wavelength and
G = GFF = km/R2, k is a constant, m is mass
and R is the straight-line distance to other objects in the field.
From medium to medium, the SOL varies inversely as a
function G (
The SOL is a variable with no upper limit. It is a reference for each medium. It is a function of the properties of our galaxy, solar system, and universe. Absolute space and time results in a rejuvenated objective world.
SOL for waves as well as photons can vary according to the Optics characteristics and the calculations of Maxwell. On an average, photon energy is equivalent to wave energy for light. Today's technologies allow the scientist to measure the speed of light in many different media of transmittal. The speed of light is a constant in space, it is a constant on earth, it is a constant on the moon, etc. Its constant value is different for each of the above media.
Since the SOL is a variable, a conflict no longer exists
between
The created world of Einstein does not agree with the real world of objective measurements. With SOL as a variable, time and distance remain in the objective real world according to existing scientific standards regardless of measurement restrictions. A variable SOL denies Einstein’s SRT.
The SOL is a constant but that constant can change depending on the media i.e. its value is different for each planet, it is different in space, it is different in various materials etc.
Is there absolute time and absolute distance? There are no absolutes but only references invented by man. When addressing time and distance, absolute is used as a reference to scientific standards by the author in lieu of subjective time and distance as that dictated by the SRT.
Optics tells us that Light speed changes whenever a new medium of travel changes. In general, a train of light waves changes direction as it crosses a boundary surface from one medium to another medium. The change in direction is a refracted wave. Every material has an index of refraction.
The index of refraction of a medium is the property usually tabulated rather than the SOL in the medium. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio of the velocities in the two media.
The index of refraction n = c/v (1)
In this case "c" is SOL (not a universal constant) and it represents some reference of the velocity of light (i e the SOL in our atmosphere or space compared to the velocity [v] in some substance). The approach here is in agreement with "c" being a general variable no matter what the media or reference.
Note
The scientific
community refers to "c" as the SOL in space and as the
"universal constant" postulated by Einstein. Articles of this WEB site have gone to great
lengths to prove that SOL is a variable.
It is variable in all media without limit and it is dependent on the
existing
From (1) above, it follows that v/v' = n'/n (2)
Where "v" is velocity of propagation in one medium and "v'" represents the velocity of propagation in the other medium.
Present day quantum physics has been successful in explaining
the world of the atom and all electromagnetic forces but thus far, it has
failed to describe the gravity of Einstein, which was the original goal of his
unified theory. In Vision article a new
concept has been developed and provides a means of explaining all the forces of
the atom with connections to
The energy equation E = heB/G is complete because it can explain electromagnetic, gravity and nuclear forces.
Nuclear forces are implicit in the result because the
nuclear magneton is defined as 2.79 times the Bohr magneton (Bohr magneton is used
to derive the new energy concept) for the proton and1.91 times for the
neutron. The energy result is an
extension of quantum physics because it includes gravity force (
The new energy concept and the derivation for a variable SOL approaches the way SOL varies between media.
SOL = Sl/2πG
From medium to medium, the SOL varies as an inverse function
of G (
The main tenet of the SRT is that “c” is a universal
constant. SOL article disagrees and from
the new energy concept E = heB/G an equation is derived for SOL = Sl/2πG
which shows that the SOL is a variable.
It cannot be both ways.
Einstein’s contributions to our physics world are many. His explanation of the photo-electric effect
(Nobel Prize), Nuclear Physics E = mc2, his thought provoking
theories of relativity and many more contributions to the world earned him,
“Man of the 20th Century”. The
contributions are beyond reproach. The
new concept presents questions about the main tenet of his SRT and extends the
progress of our physics world once again.
According to the literature, the acceptance of the GRT is a new coordinate system which curves and has a fourth dimension of time. This new coordinate system is the direct result of an intellectual necessity brought about by the subjectivity of space/time as predicted by the SRT (non-linear distance and time). Measurements of space and time in a relativity system no longer agree with common sense and they require change, a new coordinate system, and a transformation. With the acceptance of the new energy equation and the subsequent derivation for SOL, we can look to further advancements in physics. It puts away the complex mental gymnastics of relativity and string theory. There are new challenges to prove credibility of a variable SOL because of the way “c” because many scientific measurements are based on “c” being a universal constant.
Three of the articles have been mainly a review of:
1. Measurements
2. Einstein,
3. The presentation of the new energy concept E = hεB/G and how it answers exceptions to relativity.
It has been presented in this manner because Einstein
took exception to
True, Maxwell derived “c” and it has a constant value in a vacuum. Further studies show that it has different constant values for other media of transmittal. As a result, it loses credence as a universal constant.
Since “c” being a universal constant is the main tenet of the SRT, conclusions based on the SRT are no longer valid. The GRT leans heavily on the SRT for its justification. In the process, it actually denies some of the SRT.
Einstein understood that the SRT left many questions unanswered. Because of the SRT, time and distance measurements did not fit into the objective real world. He attempted to explain away the questionable characteristics of his SRT with his GRT.
The articles have gone to great lengths to replace “c” as a universal constant with a variable SOL derived from a new energy equation. Background information and review sets the stage for a variable SOL’s application. It is necessary to replace (SOL as an initial condition) and demonstrate our new variable SOL to show how it expands scientific knowledge. It is relatively easy to prove or disprove that the SOL is a variable. Today’s scientific instrumentation is sophisticated and reliable and the synchronous satellites provide a reference of absolute rest with respect to the earth. The Michelson/Morley experiment was quite complex and was looking to find a reference for the SOL.
In three of the articles, the new energy equation will investigate
how a variable SOL affects and influences proven facts of the scientific
world. Relativity demands a new look
because the main tenet of SRT is denied.
A variable SOL confirms that
What does the new energy equation mean to black hole theory?
E = hεB/G = 0 —for infinte gravity
Frequency shifts, Doppler as well as Gravity, will be investigated. Frequency shifts in the heavens address the “world of differences”. The new energy equation can show that frequency shifts are not merely due to either Doppler or Gravity but are always a combination of the two.
The energy equation has been derived and developed and it advances and extends quantum physics (because it derived from a concept there). A beauty is contained because it reaches out into space. It is an extension of concepts already known and adds the dimension of a force field and its affect on spectral frequencies of the atom as well as the speed of electromagnetic radiation (light). The energy field equation is the direct result of an algebraic manipulation of an atomic level concept derived from a Bohr magneton energy state. In the process, it presents itself as a stepping-stone from that energy state to a universal concept as an energy transporting entity similar to a photon.
The derivation of the energy equation uses two different approaches for the Bohr magneton and obtains identical results enforcing its credibility. It generalizes it and suggests that it is universal fact.
The energy equation: E = heB/G
It is an energy state equation that contains eB (Poynting vector for energy at a point; this is a Maxwell
connection), it is also a wave at some frequency and is singled valued like the
photon. G is the gravitational force
field (this is a
The new energy equation: E = heB/G = mc2
In addition, heB/c2 = mG = force
due to gravity for an electron according to
This equality opens the door to
This is a new way to look at an old thing without denying it. It is necessary that we all come out of our intellectual comfort zones and welcome these changes. We can forget overwhelming characteristics that do not agree with common sense. They take too much of person’s energy. It is nice to be free and to spend our excess energies changing those aspects of the theories (relativity) that lead to questionable and inept actions. In pursuing these questions, we, the scientific community, benefit.
It is challenging to gain understanding of time and distance measurements in the objective real world traceable to the bureau of standards. The new meaning shows that our new variable SOL is the answer and relieves everyone from worrying about putting restrictions on solutions to simple problems. There is no more mystery. If the SOL is a universal constant, time and distance measurements are in a subjective world, which denies the common sense of measurement reference standards. It is time to return to the objective real world of measurements.