1.

................................................................. Einstein, Newton, Maxwell, Relativity and Measurements. 1

1.1 What is SOL?. 1

1.2 History. 2

1.3 Michelson-Morley. 4

1.4 Relative Speed. 5

1.5 Relative Speeds Verses Non Relative Speeds. 7

1.6 Special Theory of Relativity. 9

1.7 Tenets for SRT. 9

1.8 Measurements. 10

1.9 Unreal Subjective World. 12

1.10 An Opposite View/a Solution. 13

1.11 General Theory of Relativity (GRT) 13

1.12 New Coordinate System.. 16

1.13 Einstein verses Newton. 16

1.14 SOL Variations. 17

1.15 Conclusions. 19

2.Einstein, Newton, Maxwell, Relativity and Measurements

The beginning of Special Relativity Theory (SRT) ensued when Einstein postulated that the Speed of Light (SOL) is a universal constant. Before his postulate, all physics laws agreed with common sense.

2.1 What is SOL?

Einstein’s postulate, “c” being a universal constant creates turmoil and a review of SOL is necessary. A good starting point is a review of the SRT and the General Relativity Theory (GRT). Einstein’s SRT places time and distance measurements in a system that preempts the objective real world and puts them into a subjective world, which depends on movement of the observed or the observer. To understand this conflict, it is necessary to delve into the SRT and the GRT prior to presenting any new ideas.

At the time of his relativity, there was a slight conflict between Newton’s relative speeds and Maxwell’s calculated constant “c” in a vacuum and might have influenced Einstein. It was misunderstood. Maxwell’s works included a variation in the “c” according to media of transmittal. His works are the precursor of Optics. In addition, Optics completed how “c” varies from medium to medium.

Einstein’s SRT agrees with Newton’s relative speeds and absolute gravity at speed much below some transition speed of 186,000 mi/sec (this author has not seen published literature of that transition speed). Why consider only time and distance? It is because the elements of speed and are time and distance (speed or velocity = distance/time).

Most of the literature states Einstein’s postulate, “The speed of light is a universal constant”, was the result of a failed Michelson/ Morley experiment? It is inconsequential whether his postulate came before or after the Michelson/Morley experiment. Prior to his postulate, the works of Maxwell influenced him. Maxwell is the father of E & M (electricity and magnetism) and electromagnetic waves. He determined the SOL in a vacuum. Maxwell’s works predate Einstein’s works by forty years. Even though Einstein’s postulate may not have been the result of a Michelson/Morley experiment failure, his postulate gained credence from its results. Maxwell derived the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum, which Einstein embraced. This article reviews the thought process for the theories of relativity and their meaning. The General Relativity Theory (GRT) extended the time and distance confusion to a status of universal when Einstein defined gravity as equivalent to acceleration (more on this later).

2.2 History

It is good to question how Einstein arrived at his postulate for “c”, the SRT and the GRT,

E = mc², time is relative; distance is relative. What does this all mean? These are all terms that relate directly to Einstein's SRT. For the average person and/or scientist to understand the works of Einstein is a task. There are many standard semantics shrouded in mysteries, and there are various ways to decipher them. Research continues today to prove or disprove some of Einstein's work.

To deal with the abstract thought process involved, the SRT and GRT needs much repetition and it presents the best way to learn. Is “c” a universal constant (a tenet of the SRT) or not? It is definitely a constant value but does its constant value change from medium to medium, in which, it is traveling? It is common knowledge that light travels at different speeds in different materials and is wavelength sensitive. It is dispersive in nature. In our article “Speed of Light”, a new energy concept proclaims it as a dependent variable. If it is considered a universal constant in all circumstances then its value is the same for all media of travel and Maxwell and Optics are wrong.

The SRT and GRT differ from Newton’s works. Newton’s works deal with relative velocities and absolute gravities and offer a good comparison. Our proven space program makes Newton worthy as an example of objective time and distance. Newton realized that gravity was a law of nature.

Supposedly, Einstein’s works revert to Newton’s laws for the cases dealing with speeds in some neighborhood less than “c” (this author has seen no published work that defines where the transition exactly takes place). The way Einstein defines gravity makes the previous statement questionable. The GRT makes the universal statement that gravity is equivalent to acceleration. Newton’s works treat acceleration and gravity as separate entities with inertia being the resistance to gravity. Assuming the GRT is necessary; his works profoundly change representation of gravity from action at a distance and a law of nature (Gravitational Force Field [GFF]) to a field (more about this later).

His famous equation E = mc² is valid and had been derived from the established fact of physics that e/m (e = electronic charge, m = mass of electron) is a function of speed (v). The e/m measurement is considered a root of E = mc² (see Note and derivation in the Prologue). Newton’s laws and the fact that mass varies as a function of speed leads to Einstein’s famous equation. The validity of his famous equation is not contingent on the “c” being a universal constant. The Speed of Light article establishes that the media of transmittal, wavelength, and Newton’s gravity determine the value for “c”.

Most of Einstein's works and contributions have proven themselves. His contributions are beyond reproach. He won his Nobel Prize for explaining the photo electric-effect. His greatest contribution has authored nuclear energy, as we know it. His questioning mind has led to many developments in Physics.

Einstein's relativity work is an attempt to extend and combine the work of Newton and Maxwell. However, today we know Newton and Maxwell’s works are credible and they are a basis for disagreement with relativity theory. Newton's works were 200 years old and Maxwell works were approximately 40 years old when Einstein began the development of his work. The history can explain the motives leading to the theories of relativity. Einstein’s motives and the motives of today’s scientists for pursuing answers to relativity are questionable because of our everyday successes of Newton and Maxwell in the scientific world.

The SRT and the GRT deny the objective real world of measurements and many common sense examples show how it happens. This denial offers conclusions that are hard to explain in simple terms. In addition, the relativity theory literature is repetitive and it is stereotyped. There are key phrases and semantics that have a tendency to keep everything mysterious. The articles on this WEB site here are an attempt to remove some of the mystery and the barriers that stand in the way of understanding.

The SRT challenges time and distance concepts and predicts their dilation and contraction. If the SRT is valid, then time and distance are non-linear and the Cartesian coordinate system is no longer graphically representative. Einstein's 75 mathematical formulas and a curved coordinate system (Riemanian geometry) are necessary to explain his GRT. Following a full explanation of the SRT, the necessity for the GRT seems to be an after thought to force agreement with the SRT. The explanation of the SRT gives the reader enough background and good a grasp to decide about the credence of the GRT.

2.3 Michelson-Morley

At the turn of the 19^th century an attempt to resolve the “c” controversy for the scientific world (Maxwell had proven that light is electromagnetic radiation), scientist hypothesized (because of Newton’s works) that the “c” must be measured relative to the medium through which it propagates. It was thought that electromagnetic radiation had a media of transmittal (or which to vibrate) just as sound vibrates in air. Maxwell defined the media as the ETHER. It was imagined as a frictionless fluid with no mass filling all of space uniformly. It was also reasoned that the surface of the earth is not at rest relative to the ETHER because of its travel through space. The precise measurement of “c” relative to the earth’s surface could reveal the velocity of the earth’s surface relative to the ETHER. The plan was to name the ETHER the reference frame of absolute rest. Michelson and Morley devised an experiment to make the measurements. The experiment was to compare two light beams, one of the beams was a reference beam, and the other beam was sent in a direction that was retarded by the ETHER enveloping the earth. If the plan worked a phase difference would be detected when the two beams were compared. The experiment failed.

What were the consequences of this failed experiment? Scientist wanted a frame of reference for “c” so that Maxwell’s works would be compatible with Newton’s relative speeds and absolute accelerations. The only way that they do not coexist is if “c” is a universal constant or an initial condition. Today there are instruments and experiments that can remove all doubt.

Since the experiment of Michelson-Morley supposedly failed, the scientific world was back to square one. Einstein attacked the question of a frame of reference for “c”. He embarked on a campaign to explain the failed experiment. He said that the ETHER did not exist and hence there was not a frame of absolute rest and he defined “c” as a universal constant (relative to nothing or effectively an initial condition, a law of nature and itself a reference). The question remains about ETHER existence. However, it is important that everyone understand the meaning of a reference frame (a frame of reference was being sought for SOL). SOL is a constant but is not a universal constant or an initial condition. There is a big difference. One of the most obvious demonstrations of the SOL changing is in water, where a stick in the water looks offset because of the SOL difference in air and water. The SOL in air and in water is constant but it is a different constant value in each media. It is a different constant value in space, a different constant value on the moon and a different constant value for all media of transmittal according to Maxwell and Snell’s law in optics. A comprehensive approach and study is needed because it is necessary to understand the SOL in the scientific world today because upon it depends an understanding of the SRT.

2.4 Relative Speed

What is relative speed? In its simplest form, speed is distance traveled divided by time. The speedometer of a car measures number of miles (distance in miles) divided by time (in hours). If someone is traveling on a freeway, it is easy to observe and measure the relative speeds of other cars on the road. When a car passes another car, it is traveling faster than the one it passes. In addition, vice versa the car passed is moving slower. These statements are about relative speeds and if one had a stopwatch one could measure the amount time it took for the autos to pass each other. These cars passing each other follow a definite set of laws, which are the work of Newton. i.e. Assume that you are doing 60 MPH in your car and you pass a car that is doing 40 MPH and subsequently you pass a car doing 50 MPH (assume identical cars) and for each incidence you record the amount time to pass. You find that it takes less time to pass the former than it does to pass the latter. It is simple enough and will be reviewed more times in order that the reader thoroughly familiar with the concept of relative speed.

Next, measuring the relative speed of electromagnetic waves is a big step. It is a fact that there are sophisticated instruments for measuring the speed of a light (an electromagnetic wave) burst passing the above autos. Maxwell was the first to observe and measure the speed of electromagnetic waves. Imagine a burst of light (like a bullet from a laser) passing by your auto when you are doing 60 MPH and this same burst of light passes by an identical auto next to you that is doing 70 MPH. There are identical timing devices to measure how long it takes for the burst of light to pass each auto. Since the autos are traveling at different speeds, one would think that the two times recorded for the light would be different as it was in our previous experiments involving the cars.

Timing devices, which measure with accuracy down to, and approaching zero time can accurately measure and record the time in the above experiment. Light speed is a constant in our gravitational system and a different constant in other systems. It is not a universal constant as defined by Einstein. If his postulate is true, then the times measured in this light burst experiment above are equal. Common sense dictates that the clocks or the dimensions in the two vehicles are not going to change because of a 10-MPH speed difference. It also conflicts with Newton’s works and causes confusion besides not agreeing with common sense.

According to Newton works, only changes in speed can be measured unambiguously. As another example, consider two observers traveling side by side in different vehicles. One observer is traveling at 10 MPH and the other observer is traveling at 20 MPH. Both observers look up and see an airplane flying overhead. The plan is to measure the ground speed of the plane. Both observers have the same reference point and identical stopwatches. After observing the plane and collecting the necessary data, they find that their calculated individual speed of the plane differs by their own ground speeds. Nothing is different about this straightforward measurement and the results are as expected. Now if either observer notices that the plane changes speed (either accelerates or decelerates), the change in speed recorded by both observers is the same independent of their relative speeds. This example has been simple and to the point to show relative speeds and absolute accelerations. The treatment is hardly comprehensive. The reader can find a comprehensive treatment in reference 2.

The next question is; how does the electromagnetic radiation of Maxwell fit into Newton’s system? In the above experiment for measuring ground speed, a light beam can replace the airplane. Radiation (light) had been measured, defined as a wave, and has according to Maxwell a finite constant speed in a vacuum and varies according to electric and magnetic properties of the media in which it is measured. The media in this case is our atmosphere and SOL has some constant value. However, if it is a universal constant (an initial condition) it is a reference. In that case, relative speed does not exist. This has been a review of relative speed. More examples about relative speeds follow when explaining the SRT because it is important and essential for the reader to become familiar with the concept of relative speeds. If there is difficulty with this concept, seek a reference on the subject. It is the key to understanding the SRT.

2.5 Relative Speeds Verses Non Relative Speeds

As background information, the SRT deals with something that is relative to nothing. What does this mean? The consequences of these concepts are many and change the objective real world of measurement. The SRT postulates that every observer must perform his own measurements in his own frame of reference; his house, his planet, or his galaxy. There is no such thing as absolute rest (today it is possible to create a point of absolute rest with respect to the earth via a synchronous satellite). The common ground of measurements is that everyone everywhere, regardless of his state of motion will obtain the same answer if he attempts to measure “c”.

Relative speeds in Newton’s system were acceptable and in Einstein’s work, they were questionable and dependent. If the reader is unfamiliar with what relative speed means, reference 3 offers a review of Newton’s works and relative speeds. A good grasp on this concept is essential and is the groundwork for understanding the SRT. The articles here offer a sequence of full discovery and behavior for the SOL.

Two more examples review of relative speeds. First, think of a man shooting a gun while positioned on a moving train. Newton’s law can show that if a man shoots at a target that the train is approaching, the velocity of the bullets increase by an amount equal to the velocity of the train. In addition, according to his laws, it is easy to understand that a gun being shot at a stationary target from a stationary platform is much different from the same target being shot at from a platform that is moving toward the target. All conditions being equal, the bullet of the latter will reach the target first.

FIGURE 1

The second example is of two identical space ships (same dimensions) traveling in space (Figure 1). The velocity of space ship #1 is greater than the velocity of space ship #2 and these velocities are uniform and less than the SOL but at high speeds. Consider an instant in time when ship #1 is just overtaking ship #2 as depicted in Figure 1. The two ships are identical and have identical equipment for measuring the SOL. Just at the instant the ships are lined up, a burst of light enters the ships in a direction of their velocities. The plan is to measure the amount of time it takes the light to traverse L₁ and L₂ respectively.

Both ships contain a ruler and a timing device. Before leaving earth, the rulers on space ship #1 and space ship #2 calibrated with the same dimensions and the timing devices were synchronous and kept time in the same way. Think of the ships as targets moving away from a light source here on earth. The light sources are fixed and synchronous and their bursts of light arrive at point A just as ship #1 is overtaking ship #2.

From our previous example of bullets on the train and those presented in Section 1.4, one would suspicion that the amount of time for the burst of light to traverse space ship #1 should take longer than for the burst of light to traverse the same distance in space ship #2. The light burst entered each ship at the same time and ship #1 is moving away from light burst faster than ship #2. As an analog, the bullets can be considered as the burst of light and the space ships are the targets moving away from the light burst. No matter what the speed of the light is, it seems that the answers we receive for the speed of the light burst must be different by an amount determined by the relative speeds of the two space ships.

2.6 Special Theory of Relativity

No! According to the SRT, because “c” is relative to nothing the answers are equal. How can we obtain the same answer for the given conditions of the two ships moving at different speeds? Obviously the SOL is a constant and equal in this particular measurement system. According to Newton’s works, the measurements must show a difference of the relative speeds of the two ships. If the above answers are equal, it is necessary that physical attributes of the timing device, the length measuring device or dimensions of one of the space ships have to change. If the dimensions of distance and time are scaled or changed in space ship #1, we have entered an unreal world of objectivity where the time measuring devices, distance measuring device, and/or the dimensions of the system, in which they are measured must change. If this is true, a system of standards for each system is in order.

2.7 Tenets for SRT

There are two tenets of his SRT. The first presents no problems and says that there is no such thing as absolute rest (the Principle of Relativity that was introduced by Newton). The second postulated by Einstein says that “c” is a universal constant and relative to nothing (an initial condition). Before anyone can understand the ramifications of this second statement, it is necessary to understand what relative speed is or is not. It is necessary to understand measurements of time and distance. How do these measurements apply to the works of Newton, Maxwell, and Einstein?

The second tenet of the SRT dictates measurements (for time and distance) that are subjective and appear to lead to a subjective unreal world. The concepts of relative speed are said not to apply when measuring “c” or at speeds leading up to it. The works of Newton, Maxwell, and Einstein address the situation.

1. Newton's works disagree with the SRT.

2. Maxwell's works state that the SOL is a constant and show how it varies. He did not define it as a universal constant.

3. Einstein’s work postulated that “c” is a universal constant (because an experiment investigating a reference datum for “c” had failed, there is no data backing his postulate).

Newton and Maxwell’s works are credible and follow logical sequences in their conclusions and present scientific advancement. Einstein’s SRT disagrees in every aspect with how we understand measurements. Further controversy exists in the measurement world because “c” postulated by Einstein is a standard and an initial condition in our measurement world. All other measurements are massaged to agree with “c” as a standard. Our knowledge and measurement techniques today, allow the scientific world to challenge this ninety-year-old postulate, which disagrees with common sense and the works and laws of Newton and Maxwell. The scientific world has formed opinions and in some cases formulated a solution and key words to discourage any questioning of the theories of relativity. This book challenges Einstein’s SRT and gives an alternate solution.

The key postulate of the SRT stated by Einstein is; “c” is a universal constant. Because of this statement, time and distance measurements in the real world are challenged. A methodical principle of transformation and permutation is demanded for time and distance measurements because the mathematical physical knowledge of nature and its presentation as a true reality are denied by the SRT.

Because of Einstein’s great accomplishments, it is hard to question his works because they are all lumped together. Ask anyone about E = mc² and he/she commit the common mistake that his famous equation is part of the SRT. It is not true (see full explanation in Prologue). It is important to understand that E = mc² is different from relativity. Relativity is different from Brownian motion, different from the photoelectric effect and different from all his work in quantum physics. Only relativity and his postulate on which it is based is being challenged here.

2.8 Measurements

The works and measurements of time and distance were unquestioned proven realities in the scientific world for many years before Einstein. Newton and Maxwell are two big contributors to science and are worthy of comparison in their accomplishments. It is Einstein’s interpretation of Newton and Maxwell’s works and the failed experiment of Michelson and Morley that gave some credence to Einstein’s postulate. His SOL postulate is the basis for his SRT.

The scientific community has always undertaken great efforts to obtain certitude, consistency, and accuracy for its measurements. In fact, the science of metrology deals with this problem. Standards are set up and maintained very carefully and this is the objective real world of measurement, as we know it.

All measurements are referenced to standards defined by the scientific community and can be traced to the Bureau of Standards. When comparing reference systems, a distinction between a methodical principle of transformation and permutation and physical determinations and judgments is necessary. It is important to understand that the time and distance definitions (our standards) do not change because they are definitions. They are a reality; they have been experienced and depended on in the development of the objective real world of science. Anything that wants to change that reality is suspect and causes confusion. Newton and Maxwell, whose works are very much involved with time and distance measurements, used the objective real world of measurements (standards) in all their accomplishments. Their success is not contingent on or changed by Einstein’s works.

Einstein investigated their works and decided on an apparent reality that he thought extended scientific knowledge. His work imposed new restrictions on time and distance measurements in an attempt to justify what he perceived as a problem in the work of his predecessors’.

The understanding of the real world of objective measurements does not agree with the world of Einstein. He created a new world for measurements of time and distance at some transition speed according to his SRT and furthered the confusion by declaring gravity equal to acceleration in his GRT. If the SOL is not a universal constant as he postulated, then the SRT dealing with time and distance (contraction or expansion) is non-existent and the GRT is questionable. In this book, considerations about a new concept related to the SOL will give an alternative and show that relativity is unfinished business.

Einstein’s contributions to physics, his explanation of the photo-electric effect (Nobel Prize), Nuclear Physics E = mc², his thought provoking theories of relativity and many more contributions to the world earned him, “Man of the 20^th Century”. However, his SOL postulate does not stand-alone and is open to more investigation.

2.9 Unreal Subjective World

Time and distance standards have not changed as defined by the scientific community (they are the reference). Great care was taken by the scientific community and used to setup a measuring system that is always certain, consistent and repeatable. If it is assumed that the tenet (“c” a universal constant), the intellect dictates that the mathematics are not right (time and distance must change or the dimensions of the system must change to ensure that Einstein’s postulate holds).

If “c” = ds/dt = a constant

Then d²s/dt² = 0 = acceleration of light

but light is known to bend under certain circumstances

therefore it has a component of acceleration

What does it all mean? It is a mathematical and intellectual necessity. The SRT necessitates new abstract thoughts that want to change our previously gained knowledge of experience. A new conceptual language enters another system of meaning. The new system of meaning presents the subjectivity of time and distance on the speed of the reference system. Einstein’s world appeals to intellectual necessity rather than changes in the real world and common sense. The world of mathematics replaces the physical world when measuring time and distance in Einstein’s system. It is important to point out that time definition and length definition do not change.

In addition, the tenets of the SRT set up an intellectual demand for a new coordinate system that will incorporate the subjectivity of time and distance changes. If time and distance are questionable, then Euclid’s geometry and that coordinate system are in trouble.

TENET #1: There is no such thing as absolute rest. It says that all inertial frames of reference are equal. It is interesting to note that today a synchronous satellite can be positioned that is at absolute rest with respect to some point on the earth. The precise fixed position is a reference for measuring the SOL. The purpose of the Michelson/Morley experiment was to find a point of absolute rest for measuring “c”. The experiment failed and either influenced Einstein or added credence to his position. He postulated that therefore, “c” was a universal constant and a point of absolute rest did not exist.

TENET #2: “c” is a constant (universal) and relative to nothing. Since a fixed reference is available, it is possible to do comparisons for the SOL in static and dynamic conditions. Technology has all the tools for obtaining the necessary data to disprove this tenet. The Speed of Light article offers a suggestion for measuring the SOL from synchronous satellite as a fixed reference.

2.10 An Opposite View/a Solution

Is it possible to escape from this unreal, non-absolute world of measurement back into the real world of objective measurements? Scientific progression demands that it happens without denying any of the proven work of physics. Any new concepts must extend our knowledge and understanding of the subject matter. In the article “Exploring Physics”, a new energy concept is a suggested solution. A new look at SOL puts all measurements back in agreement with common sense. It becomes a variable dependent on wavelength and Newton’s gravity.

This opposite viewpoint challenges and opens the door to new frontiers in science. The SOL is relative and variable, it is not an initial condition, and Newton’s works and Maxwell’s equations hold in their entirety. E = mc² and does not depend upon the characteristics of the universal constancy of the SOL and the GRT must be reconsidered. This is a drastic change and challenges the intellectual comfort zones of some people. Please read on and see if you like a General Theory of Relativity (GRT)

2.11 General Theory of Relativity (GRT)

One purpose of the GRT leans heavily on the SRT for its justification. Einstein also understood that the SRT left questions unanswered and he covered his tracks by postulating his GRT. It attempted to explain away those characteristics created by his SRT that encountered difficulty fitting into the real world. It is curious that in all the literature, any problem dealing with the GRT relates to the tenets for the SRT.

New developments are set forth here and project that the tenets of the SRT are not cast in cement and indicate the possibility that the GRT must be changed or replaced. It does not change questions raised by the theories. This article is not attempting to shoot down Einstein's works. It is a review to give a better understanding of how the theories fit into the real world today. The thought process approaches an explanation in a logical and historical manner. In this pursuit of new knowledge and change, there are many questions. The considerations in this article and those to follow are devoted to a simpler solution.

The GRT expands and attempts to explain the differences between the SRT and the laws of gravity developed by Newton. In his GRT, Einstein states that forces produced by gravity (Newton) are in every equivalent to forces produced by acceleration. It goes by the name “principle of equivalence”, it says that gravity and inertia are the same thing. The key idea of general relativity is that gravity pulling in one direction is equivalent to acceleration in the opposite direction. A car accelerating forwards feels just like sideways gravity pushing you back against your seat. An elevator accelerating upwards feels just like gravity pushing you into the floor. If Einstein’s gravity is equivalent to acceleration, and if motion affects measurements of time and space (as predicted by special relativity), it follows that acceleration is affected as well.

If “c” = ds/dt = a constant

Then d²s/dt² = 0 = acceleration of light

but light is known to bend under certain circumstances

therefore it has a component of acceleration

In agreement with the SRT, time and distance measurements and concepts are profoundly changed and cause confusion. According to the GRT, Newton’s law of gravity is an unnecessary hypothesis. Considering the successes that we realized through Newton’s law of gravity and his laws guiding our space program, it is hard to reconcile Einstein’s disagreement with Newton. In view of the facts today, it amazes this author that more scientist are not shouting that maybe we are on the wrong path and it is time to look for the simpler solution. A right direction is to go back to see why Einstein disagreed with Newton and Maxwell and start there. In that pursuit, Einstein believes the SOL measured by Maxwell does not to fit in with relative velocities of Newton. He attempts to solve it with the SRT, which takes away absolute time and distance. The GRT then takes away the physical objectivity of space and the concept of Newton’s gravity. It is explained away geometrical warping of space and time. It is a four dimensional Riemannian geometry which was adopted to explain away the difficulties of the SRT. In view of successes of opposite viewpoints according to Newton’s laws however, it leaves many questions and is difficult to understand. A thorough study of non-Euclidian geometry is necessary to understand the GRT.

The GRT has completely changed our description of gravitational effects. A body “A” no longer tends to go in a straight line, but it follows a path of a gravitational force due to a second body “B”. Body “A” simply and always travels on a geodesic in four dimensional space-time manifolds. If no other body “B” is present, the space aspect of that geodesic is a straight line. If another body, “B is present, its presence affects the metric properties of the space, and the space aspect of the geodesic is a curved line. Thus, Newton’s gravitational force is geometrized away. A force does not act on a body. It goes where it will. Its mass imposes on the space-time manifold such a metric as leads us to locate its successive positions in accordance with what we previously have known as a law of motion under a force.

The above description is hardly adequate to explain the physical aspects of a non-physical world. From an empirical standpoint, it is hard to ascribe words to the idea of Einstein’s non-Euclidian Riemannian geometry. Einstein explained it using mathematics (75 tensor equations). The language used is and remains purely ideal and symbolic with a footnote which informs all, his work agrees with Newton’s and reverts to his laws under the right conditions. What are those conditions? It is hard to say because the reality the GRT can express is not that of things, but the laws of relations.

Einstein spent the latter part of his life attempting to unify all field theories (Maxwell’s electricity and magnetism and his defined gravity field). In the general theory, he denies the law of gravity of Newton and then embraces the gravity that has the mathematics of fields and makes the claim that it must have a relationship to electric and magnetic field theory of Maxwell.

The profound difference between Newton and Einstein is their interpretation of what is a law of nature. Newton realized that gravity is a law of nature and all his fundamental laws of mechanics involved statements concerning accelerations. He treated changes in velocities of physical bodies rather than the velocities themselves. He realized that velocity was a relative thing and not a law of nature. Einstein postulated without proof that the SOL is a law of nature, which makes time and distance subject to motion of the observed or the observer and taking them out of the objective real world.

2.12 New Coordinate System

The acceptance of the GRT requires a new coordinate system that curves and has a fourth dimension of time. This coordinate system is the direct result of an intellectual necessity brought about by the SRT (non-linear distance and time). Measurements of space and time no longer agreed with common sense and required change. They deny the basics of Newton’s Laws. It is time to question and to deny the tenets of Einstein’s special theory. The acceptance of a new energy concept and the development of SOL as a variable in the Speed of Light article simplify the comprehension of space and time measurements and make the GRT unnecessary.

2.13 Einstein verses Newton

The GRT eliminates the need for Newtonian action a distance required for Newton’s law of gravity. Field contact action is the basis for Einstein’s gravity. Newton’s gravity predicts how particles of matter or objects act in a gravitational force field. These same particles or objects according to Einstein’s GRT have contact with curves, which guide them. Inertial and gravitational systems are equal and are known and explained as the Principle of Equivalence (Field Contact Action). In this system, somebody standing on a balance in a windowless enclosure is unable to tell with certainty if weight measured on a scale or balance is due to the attraction of the earth, or is an inertial force due to upward acceleration in weightless space. In this system, Newton’s gravity becomes relative and equal to inertia. However, we know that in Newton’s world, gravity and inertia are separate entities. Inertia is the resistance to a change in force in the gravity force field.

Field contact action cannot produce simultaneity as in Newton’s work because changes in a field contact system require time for change to occur. The field lines are the media of transmittal for the force field and with a media of transmittal, nothing can happen in zero time. In the far action system of Newton, a media of travel is not necessary allowing simultaneity of actions and reactions. Mutual interaction between the bodies (sun, planets, particles etc.) does exist and is instantaneous. When a radio signal reaches a space ship and commands a change in attitude, the attitude (direction) can change instantaneously and does not have to wait for the solar system to adjust.

Einstein’s world is somewhat like induction in an electric circuit. Current in one element causes an effect (voltage) in another element and a finite time is required. With Newton’s gravity, all elements equally contribute to the field of force. All elements in the force field contribute to the field. One key element dominates. In our solar system, it is the sun. The multiple actions between all elements of matter in the force field interact and the interactions affect all elements at once. The addition of another body into the force field changes the force field.

In Einstein’s system, the addition of another body simply changes field lines of the system and changes how bodies can travel. These changes require a finite time barring simultaneity.

2.14 SOL Variations

Do light beams bend? An experiment, in which light from a star shows that the light actually curves as it passes by the sun. The light beams do actually bend (This denies his postulate that the SOL is a universal constant because if light can change speed and doesn’t travel in a straight line then it has a component of acceleration). According to Optics, light waves pass from medium to medium; they change speed and direction and bend sharply as anyone can see by observing a stick or an object in water. Gravity force fields affect light as it travels in space. It is assumed that the media near the sun is much different (somewhat rarefied with high gravitational pull) compared to other parts of space (simple optics explains this). Light bends contingent on the proximity of its path with respect to the sun or other gravity producing objects. It is also interesting to note that Fermat’s law predicts that light takes the path (affected by its media) that requires the least amount of time.

SOL vs. gravity (Newton’s) will be treated and related to the new energy concept the Speed of Light article. The bending of light, besides being a function of the media in which it travels, is also an inverse function of gravitational field force (Newton). In lieu of the demands for a new coordinate system (Einstein’s world), it is time for the scientific community to investigate again the tenets of SRT and its complement the GRT. The SOL is a constant in different gravitational systems and materials but it is not a universal constant (an initial condition). Time and distance measurements remain in the objective real world. SOL is an ordinary variable dependent on media variation of electric permittivity, magnetic permeability, gravity (Newton), and wavelength of the light.

Gravitational red shifts verify and exploit the same causes for the bending of starlight. Shifts of wavelengths in materials initiating in space is the tool for Astronomy and Cosmology in space. Based on the new energy concept, the article on “Understanding the Universe” gives a full treatment of Doppler and gravity shift (Red shifts) and gives a distinction between the two. In 1958 black holes were postulated and offered as another proof of GRT. It is believed that a black hole is a collapsed star that possesses so much gravity that light cannot pass through it. In the development to follow, energy as well as SOL show to be an inverse function of New