Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This article and those on this WEB site are precursors to a new way of thinking about some old ideas of physics and they question the comfort zones of the scientific community with regard to Einstein's Special Relativity Theory. It presents what the author does and does not understand about Einstein's relativity compared to Newton and Maxwell. It is presented in dialogue form with a small amount of mathematics. It is found that the understanding of the real world of objective measurements does not agree with the world of Einstein. He created a new world of measurements.

Einstein has been voted the man of the 20th century. He won his Nobel Prize for explaining the Photoelectric effect, which also was one of the justifications of a need for Quantum Physics used to extend Classical Physics. He can be thought of as the Father of Nuclear Energy through his famous equation E = mc². Much of his work was consumed with his relativity theories, which he claimed extended Newton's work. Many have difficulty accepting these theories because here we are 80 years later still wrestling with their proofs. Einstein postulated without proof that the Speed of Light (SOL) is a universal constant. If the SOL is not a universal constant then the SRT dealing with time and distance (contraction or expansion) is non-existent and the General Relativity Theory (GRT) needs to be reexamined.

Note

The famous equation E = mc²(E is energy, m is a change in mass, and c is the speed of light) associated with Einstein is not being questioned. This famous equation doesn’t care whether the SOL is a universal constant. It can be derived by treatment of Newton’s second law F = d(mv)/dt and the acceleration of a particle. In reference 1 on page 12ff the dependence of mass on velocity is presented as:

m = m₀/(1 - v²/c²)^1/2.

It is experimentally derived. By substitution the famous equation is developed and through other mathematical manipulation (See Prologue on this WEB sit for further explanation) it reverts back to Newton’s equation for v much less than c.

1.2 What is SOL?

To understand the turmoil initiated by Einstein’s postulate it is necessary to review just what is meant by the “c” being a universal constant. A good starting point is a review of the SRT and the General Relativity Theory (GRT). His SRT places time and distance measurements in a system that preempts the objective real world and puts them into a subjective world, which depends on movement of the observed or the observer. To understand this conflict, it is necessary to delve into the SRT and The GRT prior to presenting any new ideas.

At the time of his relativity, there was a slight conflict between Newton’s relative speeds and Maxwell’s calculated constant “c” in a vacuum and might have influenced Einstein. It was misunderstood. Maxwell’s works included a variation in the “c” according to media of transmittal. His works are the precursor of Optics. In addition, Optics completed how “c” varies from medium to medium.

Einstein’s SRT agrees with Newton’s relative speeds and absolute gravity at speed much below some transition speed of 186,000 mi/sec (this author has not seen published literature of that transition speed). Why are only time and distance affected? It is because the elements of speed and are time and distance (speed or velocity = distance/time).

In most of the literature states that Einstein’s postulate, “The speed of light is a universal constant”, was the result of a failed Michelson/ Morley experiment? It is inconsequential whether his postulate came before or after the Michelson/Morley experiment. Prior to his postulate he was probably influenced by the works of Maxwell. Maxwell can be called the father of E & M (electricity and magnetism) and electromagnetic waves. He determined the SOL in a vacuum. Maxwell’s works predate Einstein’s works by forty years. Even though Einstein’s postulate may not have been the result of a Michelson/Morley experiment failure, his postulate gained credence from its results. In determining his postulate, Einstein had to be influenced by the fact that Maxwell derived the speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum. This article reviews all about the thought process for the theories of relativity and their meaning. The General Relativity Theory (GRT) extended the time and distance confusion to a status of universal when Einstein defined gravity as equivalent to acceleration (more on this later).

1.3 History

It is good to question how Einstein arrived at his postulate for “c”, the SRT and the GRT,

E = mc², time is relative; distance is relative. What does this all mean? These are all terms that relate directly to Einstein's SRT. For the average person and/or scientist to understand the works of Einstein is a task. There are many standard semantics shrouded in mysteries, which can be deciphered in various ways. Research continues today to prove or disprove some of Einstein's work.

Repetition is the best way to learn and much repetition is needed when dealing with the abstract thought process involved with the SRT and GRT. Is “c” a universal constant (a tenet of the SRT) or not? It is definitely a constant value but does its constant value change from medium to medium, in which, it is traveling? It is common knowledge that light travels at different speeds in different materials and is wavelength sensitive. It is dispersive in nature. In our chapter to follow about SOL a new energy concept proclaims it as a common variable. If it is considered a universal constant then its value is the same for all media of travel and Maxwell and optics are wrong.

The SRT and GRT differ from Newton’s works. They are compared with Newton’s works because his works deal with relative velocities and absolute gravities. Our proven space program makes Newton worthy as an example of objective time and distance. Newton realized that gravity was a law of nature.

Supposedly, Einstein’s works revert to Newton’s laws for the cases dealing with speeds in some neighborhood less than “c” (this author has seen no published work that defines where the transition exactly takes place). The way he defines gravity makes the previous statement questionable. The GRT makes the universal statement that gravity is equivalent to acceleration. So how can his works ever revert to Newton’s? Assuming the GRT is necessary; his works profoundly change representation of gravity from action at a distance and a law of nature (Gravitational Force Field [GFF]) to a field (more about this later).

His famous equation E = mc² is valid and had been derived from the established fact of physics that e/m (e = electronic charge, m = mass of electron) is a function of speed (v). This change is attributed to the mass (m). The e/m measurement is considered as a root of E = mc² (see Note and derivation in the Prologue). It can be demonstrated that Newton’s laws and mass varying with speed were used by Einstein to develop his famous equation. Its validity of his famous equation is not contingent on the “c” being a universal constant. It will be established in the article on Speed that the media in which it is measured determine “c’s” value.

Most of Einstein's works and contributions have proven themselves. His contributions are beyond reproach. He won his Nobel Prize for explaining the photo electric-effect. His greatest contribution has authored nuclear energy, as we know it. His questioning mind has led to many developments in Physics.

Einstein's relativity work is an attempt to extend and combine the work of Newton and Maxwell. Newton and Maxwell’s works are proven and are referenced many times. Newton's works were 200 years old and Maxwell works were approximately 40 years old when Einstein began the development of his work. The history can explain the motives leading to the theories of relativity. Einstein’s motives and the motives of today’s scientists for pursuing answers to relativity are questionable because of our everyday successes of Newton and Maxwell.

Many common sense examples can be used to show how the SRT and the GRT seem to deny the objective real world of measurements. Because of this denial, conclusions are reached that do not agree with common sense. And adding to the problem, much of the literature in dealing with relativity theory is stereotyped. There are key phrases and semantics that have a tendency to keep everything mysterious. The articles of this WEB site are an attempt to remove some of the mystery and the barriers that stand in the way of understanding.

The SRT challenges time and distance concepts and predicts their dilation and contraction. If the SRT is valid, then time and distance are non-linear and the Cartesian coordinate system is no longer graphically representative. A new coordinate system that is curved is necessary and is the basis for Einstein's 75 mathematical (Riemanian geometry) formulas explaining the GRT. The necessity for the GRT is addressed later following a full explanation of the SRT. It is hoped that the treatment of the SRT gives the reader enough background and good a grasp to decide about the credence of the GRT.

1.4 Newton

Newton’s works deal with action at a distance of bodies, relative velocities, and absolute gravity. His works remained unquestioned for 200 years because of their usefulness to the scientific world. Prior to his work, motion of planets, heavenly bodies, etc. could not be predicted. Newton expressed his laws in quantitative terms. His math (Calculus) forecasts what would work and what would not. All of his laws have been empirically concluded.

The single most deductive discovery made by Newton was his law of gravitational attraction. He made no assumptions about the cause of gravitational attraction, and he did not speculate about what was happening between attracting bodies. He states that gravitational force is one force simultaneously felt by all interacting bodies in the Gravitational Field of Force (GFF). Empty space exists between gravitating bodies and all bodies/particles (earth, moon, planets/electrons, atoms, etc.) contribute to the GFF. The attraction is called "action at a distance" or "far action".

An object experiences a GFF (in lieu of a gravitational field because a field implies some entity between the objects) near the earth, moon, planets etc. Values of the field of force for each planet, moon, etc. can be calculated from mathematics created and derived by Newton. Gravity for earth is 32, for the moon is 1/6th of earth value, for Jupiter the value is 2.5 times that of earth, etc. etc. Their absolute values depend on the mass of the object (earth, moon, planet etc.). Our own mass (body) is small compared to the mass of these bigger objects and we have little effect on the force field; nevertheless we are all part of the force field and contribute to it. This field of force follows an inverse square law (1/D² where D is distance between centers of bodies).

Any changes, i.e. position change of an object or particle in a force field, instantly changes the force field and is detected by all entities of the field. It is an important distinction when comparing with Einstein’s work. Why is this explanation important? It is important because simultaneity is impossible in a field system (according to Einstein’s results). It is important to get a good grasp of the practicality of Newton's works and laws because all of our satellites in space are the direct result and have been accomplished through Newton's laws. Newton's works and laws are backed by empirical data (measurement of time and distance) in an objective real world. His laws do not require a media of travel for forces acting between bodies in a gravitational force field.

The highlights of Newton's works:

1. Gravitational Law:

F = Öm₁m₂/ R² force between two bodies of mass 1 and mass 2 follow an inverse square law

2. Media of interaction between two or more bodies is empty space allowing simultaneity. i.e. when an attitude command is given to one of our satellites, it doesn’t have to wait the rest of the universe to adjust. It can change instantaneously.

3. Gravity force and inertia are separate entities. Bodies set up a gravity force field and inertia is something that happens in the gravity force field. Inertia is a measure of the force that resists a change in velocity (gravitational acceleration).

4. Time and distance are absolutes in this system of Cartesian coordinates.

1.5 Maxwell

On the heels of Newton's works came the work of another genius, who was able to combine all the laws for electricity and magnetism. They are summarized in four equations that bear his name, "Maxwell's Equations" (see reference 3, page 131).

It is important to understand that Maxwell's works and equations stressed fields, which solve many problems that cannot be solved by "action at a distance". The field concept introduced by Maxwell and some of his contemporaries define a media of interaction for particles, objects, electric charges, etc. Because there is a media of travel, change in one part of the field needs a finite time for the change to be detected at some distance away. In this case infinite velocity would be required for simultaneity (possible under Newton's works because of lack of a media). In a field, force is not a dynamic single entity.

Research of electric charges showed a relation to each other with a force law like gravity, i.e. the product of their charges and inversely as the square of their distance. Electric currents were accompanied with magnetism around the conductor, and hence currents themselves could react electrodynamically.

All the discoveries of Maxwell's era introduce problems demanding explanation. Maxwell's works and equations explained:

1. The relationship between electricity and magnetism. Maxwell's four famous equations explained and defined these relationships. His first two equations indicate the nature of the continuity of electric and magnetic force and the second two tell how their field forces affect each other when changing in time in any way (see reference 3, page 131).

2. He defined fields as a media of travel between electric charges and represented them graphically as lines in the media.

3. He demonstrated electromagnetic waves and also showed that light was an electromagnetic wave. He measured the speed of these waves. He defined a media of travel (Ether, which is still discussed by scientist) analogous to sound waves travelling in air.

4. Time and distance are absolutes in this system of Cartesian coordinates.

Offering a comparison, Newton’s works presented to the world a mechanistic view of the universe, which was formulated and worked out by means of Newton’s calculus. Maxwell’s equations dealt with electricity, magnetism, and electromagnetic radiation and calculated a finite speed for its waves. Implicit in all these works was an acceptance of concepts, which are concerned with establishing a characteristic standard of measurement in the objective physical world. Newton’s and Maxwell’s work can coexist. Einstein disagreed.

1.6 Maxwell Vs Newton

Maxwell's works and equations (media transmittal) gave some cause to question the work of Newton, namely, simultaneity. And light is an electromagnetic wave and has a finite speed. Newton's works deal with relative speeds. Does relative speed apply when dealing with the speed of light (relative to what)?

Newton's laws remained unquestioned and have been empirically confirmed through our space program. Maxwell's system deals with fields and the constant velocity of electromagnetic waves and these do not necessarily disagree with Newton's works. They can coexist or eventually be combined in a way that creates no deference of the two concepts. A problem doesn't seem to exist.

Today's technologies allow the scientist to measure the speed of light in many different media of transmittal. The speed of light is a constant in space, it is a constant on earth, it is a constant on the moon, etc. Its constant value is different for each of the above media. The speed of light being a constant is not being questioned but it being a universal constant (per Einstein) is being questioned.

Since Maxwell defined a media of transmittal (Ether) for the travel of light, scientist of his era hypothesized that the speed of light could be measured relative to its media. An experiment by Michelson/Morley was devised to measure the speed of light relative to the earth's surface and the velocity of the earth relative to the Ether. The plan was to name the Ether a reference frame of absolute rest. The experiment failed. Not to worry, because today's technology allows us to create a point of absolute rest via a synchronous satellite.

What next? Scientist wanted a frame of reference for the speed of light so that Maxwell's works would be compatible with Newton's relative speeds and absolute accelerations. Einstein understood Newton's works and Maxwell's works and also was aware of the failed experiment. He now steps into the picture and attempts to solve their differences.

1.7 Einstein's Measurements

Einstein put the scientific community in turmoil by postulating that the speed of light is a universal constant and relative to nothing. What are the consequences of the speed of light being relative to nothing? According to Einstein, its value is not different for the different media as stated above.

What is relative speed? In its simplest form and according to Newton it is distance traveled divided by time (D/T). The speedometer of a car measures number miles (distance) per hour (time). If someone is traveling on a freeway, other cars and their relative speeds can be observed. If a car passes another car, it can be said that it is traveling faster than the one it passes. And vice versa the car passed can be said to be moving slower. These statements are about relative speeds and if one had a stopwatch one could measure the amount time it took for the autos to pass each other.

1.8 Light Speed Measurements

To measure the speed of light with respect to something moving or stationary requires the fine aspects of our latest technology. There exist sophisticated instruments that can make these measurements in a repeatable manner. Imagine a burst of light (like a bullet from a laser) passing by your auto when you are doing (a) 60 MPH and this same burst of light passes by an identical auto next to you that is doing (b) 70 MPH. Since the autos are traveling at different speeds, the amount time to pass each auto must be different. It is suppose to take longer to pass the auto doing 70 MPH. This experiment could actually be performed but the results according to Einstein are not what one would expect. The measurements do not show a difference of the relative speeds of the two cars as in the previous car experiment.

The answers must be equal because the speed of light is relative to nothing per Einstein’s postulate. How can we obtain the same answer for the given conditions of the two cars moving at different speeds relative to a light beam? In order for the answers obtained to be equal, it is necessary that physical attributes of the timing device, the length measuring device or dimensions of one of the cars have to change. Assuming the dimensions of distance and time have been scaled or changed in car (a) or (b), one has entered an unreal world of objectivity. The time measuring devices, the distance measuring device and/or the dimensions of the system, in which they are measured, has changed. If this is true, a system of standards for each system must be defined. All because of an unfounded postulate that the speed of light is a universal constant. Note that it was a postulate, not backed by data and in conflict with Newton's works. This led to maximum confusion besides not agreeing with common sense.

NOTE

Some readers may object to the analogy given in the experiment because the speed of light is not being treated in a vacuum or outer space. It is possible to replace the autos in the experiment with space ships (one moving at 60 KMPH and the other moving at 70 KMPH) in outer space with the ability to perform the same measurements. The burst of light would then be passing two space ships traveling at much higher and at different speeds.

Einstein attempted to logically fit the light speed characteristic (initial condition) into the proven, absolute, and unquestioned world of Newton. It fails miserably because it makes time and distance measurements subjective and non-absolute when dealing with light. Time and distance measurements must change and be non-absolute if the speed of light is relative to nothing (time and distance are no longer linear). Time and distance must expand or contract in order for them to adjust to an absolute constant speed. It follows according to Einstein: In our real world, relative speed of light with respect to any moving object cannot be detected. Distance divided by time (definition of speed) does not hold when measuring the speed of light. The characteristic standard of measurement in the objective physical world has been preempted. Measurement concepts have been denied on pragmatic and untested grounds, which directly deny mathematical physical knowledge of nature and its presentation as a true reality.

1.9 Subjective Measurements

The number one tenet of the SRT (speed of light a universal constant), dictates that the mathematics are not right (time and distance must change or the dimensions of the system must change to ensure that the postulate holds). These new abstract thoughts have a tendency to change previous gained knowledge of experience and scientific standards. A new conceptual language is expressed that enters another system of meaning. The new system of meaning presents the subjectiveness of time and distance on the speed of the reference system. Time and distance have been taken from the physical world and put in the world of mathematics. This conclusion is wrought by appealing to intellectual necessity rather than changes in the real world and common sense. It is important to point out that time definition and length definition do not change. The SRT sets up an intellectual demand for a new coordinate system that will incorporate the subjectivness of time and distance changes. If time and distance are questionable, it can be stated that Euclid’s geometry and the Cartesian coordinate system are in trouble.

In most cases proclaiming a new theory, empirical data is sought to confirm a theory. Michelson/Morley experiment sought data to prove an absolute reference for electromagnetic waves (light), which could not be confirmed, so Einstein declared a postulate in lieu of proof. He claimed that Ether did not exist (this still being questioned by some scientist) and he claimed the speed of light is a universal constant in all media and relative to nothing.

If it is assumed that Einstein's postulate is true, what changes? Do the measuring devices change? It appears that the principles and hypotheses of Einstein’s theories have not been taken from the world of sense but have been taken from a world of phenomena, which are related, dependent, and necessary. This new symbolism contains the measurement of physical objectivity but puts restrictions on it. He has made a comparison of two reference systems of measurement with no distinction made between physical determinations and formal judgments (postulates) and they lack a methodical principle of transformation and permutation (a quick temporary solution during his era but not applicable today).

1.10 Einstein verses Newton

The GRT eliminates the need for Newtonian action a distance required for Newton’s law of gravity. Einstein’s gravity was based on field contact action. Particles of matter were guided by contact with curve space instead of being attracted by distant bodies (Newton). Inertial and gravitational systems were equal and are known and explained as the Principle of Equivalence (Field Contact Action). In this system, somebody standing on a balance in a windowless enclosure is unable to tell with certainty if weight measured on a scale or balance is caused by the attraction of the earth, or is an inertial force due to upward acceleration in weightless space. In this system, Newton’s gravity is not spared. It, too, becomes relative and equal to inertia. In Newton’s world, gravity and inertia are separate entities. Inertia is the resistance to a change in force in the gravity force field.

Field contact action cannot produce simultaneity as in Newton’s work because of the finite time required for changes to be recorded. The field lines are the media of transmittal for the force field and with a media of transmittal, nothing can happen in zero time. In the far action system of Newton a media of travel is not necessary allowing simultaneity of actions and reactions. Mutual interaction between the bodies (sun, planets, particles etc.) does exist and is instantaneous. When a radio signal is received by a space ship commanding a change in attitude, the attitude (direction) can change instantaneously and does not have to wait for the solar system to adjust.

Einstein’s world is somewhat like induction in an electric circuit. Current in one element causes an effect (voltage) in another element and a finite time is required. With Newton’s gravity all elements equally contribute to the field of force. There is normally one key element of matter in gravity field force (in our solar system it is the sun). However, it is multiple actions between all elements of matter in the force field. Interaction and the recipient of its effect are felt by all elements at once. A sudden change in one is instantly felt by the force field and affects all. An energy force field can only be changed by an addition of another body. In Einstein’s system the addition of another body simply changes field lines of the system and changes how bodies can travel. These changes require a finite time barring simultaneity.

1.11 Conclusion

Newton’s works of physical interactions and his mechanics explained the properties of planetary and satellite orbits in our solar system. His laws are the backbone of our space program. His work remained unquestioned for two hundred years. Any new comprehensive theory of physics had to duplicate all his achievements to merit acceptance. In Newton’s physics the distance between two physical objects at any particular instant is well define whether they are at rest or not. Maxwell measured the speed of electromagnetic waves (light). Einstein postulated that the speed of light is a universal constant and attempted to fit Newton’s work with the relativity of time and distance. He knew that it was necessary to extend Newton's work in order to be accepted. Much confusion was caused by what he considered an inconsistency between relativity of time and Newton’s laws of gravitation. Today we are still pursuing proposed questions that were initiated by the GRT.

An opposite viewpoint could be taken. As an example, admit that the speed of light is a variable (see “Absolute Time and Space” on this WEB site), is not a universal constant and the famous equation E = mc² holds and a GRT must be reexamined. The absolute mechanistic world of Newton remains, coexists, and does not conflict with Maxwell’s world of fields and waves traveling at a finite speed. What do you think