Understanding
the Universe
1.1
Introduction
Electromagnetic waves, a form of radiant energy, were first studied and characterized by Maxwell. An unending source of electromagnetic waves is from space (the heavens). The sources observed offer a way to study the properties of space. Light is the common form of radiant energy which everyone knows. The waves move at a finite speed and their energy is proportional to frequency. This article addresses the cause of the wavelength variation of these sources as one of the measurement tools. The sources observed (e.g. a star) are moving toward or away from a fixed point on earth and are characterized (Doppler shifts) as a blue shift or a red shift, respectively.
Radial velocities of galaxies are measured as going away from the earth and suggest that the universe is expanding. Some believe that red shifts at the enormous distances are entirely or partially gravitational. Some scientist believe and argue that observed red shifts in the spectra observed from the distant galaxies may not be Doppler shifts at all but may be caused by some unknown effect on light. I agree with the latter.
The development and derivation of our new energy concept containing new roots for the SOL has been presented and conclusions have been drawn in the previous articles of this WEB site. These new roots establish frequency variation dependent on electric field intensity, magnetic vector potential and gravity field force. Practical applications of this new energy equation can and will be related to radiation source brightness and their frequency variations.
1.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
All around us is radiation. A common source of radiation is from space (night sky) and there are many other sources artificially produced (radio, radar, television etc.). The amount of energy from any source equals the power of the wave observed times it duration. A source of radiation and of paramount interest to the scientific community is the night sky. Point sources (stars) of continuous electromagnetic waves can be observed. Telescopes provide the best means to capture the energy of these sources (galaxies, planets, quasars, pulsars, solar systems etc) for evaluation.
The science of astronomy studies and makes measurements of received radiation from the heavens. The explicit purpose of the measurements is to study velocities, distances and radiation intensities of heavenly bodies. The radial velocity of a heavenly body is the speed with which it approaches or recedes from a set position (e.g. A fixed point on earth).
It is observed that the frequency of the wave shifts proportional to its movement in the heavens. Advanced photography technology allows science to measure frequency shifts. The frequency shifts are Doppler shifts named after their founder, who first explained them. They are combined with gravity shifts. The movements and brightness of heavenly bodies are measured by investigation of elemental spectral frequencies and their associated Doppler shifts. Scientists are undecided about frequency shifts in the heavens (for galaxies, stars, planets Quasars etc). Are they Doppler shifts or gravity shifts? The new equation will show that the shifts are a combination of the two.
Note
Hubble’s law or the law of red shifts interprets the radial
velocities (the red shifts of spectral lines) of heavenly bodies. The more distant a heavenly body, the greater
in direct proportion is its speed of recession.
Today the only known cause of these red shifts, other than Doppler, is
suspected gravitational fields.
All scientists do not accept the interpretation of the red
shift law as an indication of an expanding universe. They argue that observed red shifts of
distant heavenly (namely galaxies) may not be Doppler shifts at all but may be
caused by some unknown effect on light.
Many scientist, apparently, are troubled by the concept of extremely
high speeds with which the heavenly bodies are receding. To avoid confusion in this article, gravity
shift will always refer to
1.3 Cosmology
There are multiple cosmological models and all in some
way answer or fill in part of the pie.
The cosmological principle states that the part of the universe that we
are able to observe is characteristic of the entire universe. There is a model based on the Big Bang Theory
(expanding universe) and is considered evolutionary in nature. The General Relativity Theory (GRT) in cosmology
treats light as traveling on curved lines in a gravitational field which have
world points that are considered in an invariant space time interval. The steady state theory says that matter is
being created continuously in empty space at a rate just sufficient to replace
what is leaving due to recessions of heavenly bodies. Another energy model, The Theory of Everything
has been introduced. It is a direct
function of Maxwell’s energy at a point and is an inverse function of
1.4 Astronomy
A good starting point asks the question; what do we see when we look into the heavens? We are observing a spectrum of radiation sources that have various intensities and frequencies associated with them. There are other sources that might be too distant to be detected or they are in the non-visible part of the spectrum. Other means of observing can be used (such as radio frequency telescopes, radar radio, photography, spectrographs etc.). At night, much of the radiation observed is in the visible spectrum. Further investigation indicates that the sources of radiation are characteristic spectral frequencies of known elements found in space. Every elemental atom can be identified by its characteristic frequency. By measuring variations (frequency shifts of radiation from stars, galaxies etc), a determination of radial velocities and distances of these sources can be found.
It turns out that at the root of most of the discoveries in astronomy as well as in communications (satellites) are the variation of these frequency measurements. The radial velocity of a star, galaxy, etc. or a satellite is the speed with which it approaches or recedes from a set position. It is measured by Doppler shift of lines of some absorption spectrum (boundary lines separating frequencies) and can be observed for any entity in the heavens that can be photographed. The radial motion along the line of sight is a complicated problem in geometry and must be worked out (see ref 2, pp. 253-4).
1.4.1 Star Brightness and Frequency
The amount of light energy (luminous flux) received from stars is among the most important and fundamental observational data of astronomy. It is used to estimate both distance and energy of stars. The light gathering power of a telescope is proportional to the area of its aperture (lens or mirror). By varying the size of the aperture, a means for calibrating a telescope to detect classified light magnitudes (1 to 6) by photoelectric photometry has been devised. The lowest number represents the brightest star or object and the larger number represents the faintest detection.
The classification of this light magnitude (1 to 6) dates back to the Greeks in the second century BC. It has led to the development of a measuring technique used today (developed in the18th century). It was noticed that a first magnitude star received 100 times as much light as the sixth magnitude star. Thus, a difference of five magnitudes corresponds to a ratio in luminous flux of 100:1. The literature publishes differences in magnitude and light ratios as well as magnitude data for different objects (sun, moon, planets, stars etc., see reference 2).
A star’s brightness is also a function of its distance from us (most of the literature addresses stars and can be extended to include all heavenly objects). The light that is observed from a star or heavenly body is inversely proportional to the square of its distance. The apparent brightness (1 to 6 magnitudes) of stars that has just been discussed does not provide a basis for comparing the amounts of light that they actually emit into space. In astronomy, another scale is devised for comparing how much light is received from an object if all objects were at the same distance from the measuring device. A common distance of 10 parsecs (PC) is arbitrarily chosen for all objects and the inverse square law is used to calculate magnitudes and to derive a distance modulus (1pc = 200,000 AU, and 1 AU » 92,960,000 mi.).
Besides brightness differences, all objects emitting radiation have a frequency spectra that varies for each object or star. These frequencies indicate the makeup of the object and indicate the movement of the object and its speed. Today, seven principal spectral classes (sequences) are recognized and classified (published in the literature see ref. 2, p. 271). Many of the spectra observed in the stars were first observed in known terrestrial elements.
This has been a cursory treatment of luminous flux density and frequency spectrum for stellar objects as measured by a telescope. For more details the reader is asked to review these aspects in more detail in reference 2. The object of this article is to present how our new concept extends astronomical measurement techniques and extends knowledge of those observations. The new concept is used to study radial frequency change (df/dR) of the object observed. The object’s gravity becomes significant to the frequency changes observed.
1.5 Spectral Frequency
Niels Bohr presented an atom model with defined orbits for the electrons that were separated by discrete energy levels called quantum transitions. Bohr first defined the spectral frequencies and identifying earmarks of material. His presentation was an ad hoc approach that predated DeBroglie’s wave-particle works by about ten years.
One transition of an electron requires a quantum of energy and is measured as one photon; E = hf, where E is energy, h is Planck’s constant, and f is spectral frequency of the photon and characteristic of the element. The transitions are a constant and highly predictable and are used as a defining concept for distances and speeds of heavenly bodies. This is possible because it is found that materials spectrally studied here on earth are some of the same materials found in space. Spectral absorption lines from radiating sources are observed and related to movement and distance.
1.6 Review
Quantum physics has been reviewed and it gave everyone an
appreciation of atomic physics and energy systems. Some of the following is repetition of
quantum physics reviewed and already considered. It is hoped that the presentation shows that
energy states at the atomic level have opened up a new world and a new way of
looking at radiant energy. It has
already been considered that the new energy equation answers many questions
about energy conversion Total energy of
a system is made up of Potential Energy (PE), Kinetic Energy (KE), and Radiant
Energy (RE). When RE is negligible, PE
and KE and can be resolved with
1.7 Atom
We have seen that atoms are characterized by
energy levels, which correspond to various distances of their electrons from
their nuclei. By absorbing or emitting
energy (photon), an electron can move from one to another of those levels
(synonymous with raising or lowering its energy). The absorbed or emitted radiation only occurs
at certain energies or wave frequencies (an electron changing its radial
position). These are known as spectral
identifying frequencies for a particular atom.
DeBroglie’s work married particles and waves and introduced us to partial solutions for atomic phenomena that could not be explained by the Bohr model. It redefined the nature of the electron in an atom in terms of a wave and as a particle and accounted for its probable position in the atom.
Quantum physics answers questions about atoms containing multiple electrons and their wave/particle duality. It is also a synthesis of two approaches of when to treat the electron as a particle and when to treat it as a wave.
1.8 Wave Characteristics
The dependence of a uniform plane wave depends only on the characteristics of the medium in which it propagates. In free space it travels at a constant speed determined for space and for the case of heavenly bodies (star, galaxy, etc.), they travel at a relative speed to or from the earth or planet from which they are observed. This latter velocity is known as the radial velocity of the body and is an important part of determining positions in the heavens.
If a light (or radiation) source is approaching or receding from earth, there is a shift in frequency of that energy source. This principle is known as the Doppler principle or the Doppler Effect named after its discoverer. It effectively says that the radiation waves are crowded closer together (toward the observer, a blue shift) or spread out (away from the observer, a red shift), respectively. These wave fronts are traveling in a radial direction with respect to the observer and are characterized by some radial velocity. The simplest of the Doppler shift can be expressed as (Δl)/l = v/c where v is radial velocity, c is the constant speed of light for the medium of measurement, and l is wavelength. In the scientific community, there are uncertainties about the frequency shifts leading to velocity, distance, and luminosity problems but it continues to be used as a tool of measurement. Figure 2 is a graphical representation of Doppler shift.
Figure 1
1.9
Force Fields
Equation 1 is a function of two fields (electric and magnetic) and an inverse function of gravity force field (Gravity).
E = h eB/G (1)
Examining its structure it can be addressed as
electromagnetic radiation (at some frequency) divided by the
There are electric fields, magnetic vector potential and
gravitational force fields implicit at the atomic level. The force fields are linked to energy states
of the atom. Environments with like
force fields affect these energy states, especially stars, planets, moons,
quasars etc. This dictates that the
energy equation can be applied universally in the study of the heavens. The value of gravity (
The equation has the unique form of radiation energy (eB) divided by gravity (force field). It has already been demonstrated that the speed of light is inversely proportional to the gravitational force field, in which it is measured. The new energy equation will now be used to investigate Doppler shifts, gravity shifts, and time varying gravity force fields. At the atomic level the energy equation is considered as an energy equation of state that coexists with the wave equation and quantum numbers.
In dealing with radiation effects of the atom in the world of astronomy, the external fields add or subtract like vectors with those intrinsic fields produced in the atom. Besides the characteristic frequencies observed being affected by radial movement, they are affected by electric fields, magnetic fields as well as gravitational force fields of the observed objects. Equation 1 has many applications. In this case, it wants to present its profound influence on observed frequencies. When considering energy states and characteristics of energy states, the energy equation can be applied universally to radiations and their frequencies.
This new concept of energy state needs a name. It seems appropriate to call it a Newton/Maxwell photon because of the fields and waves involved and its similarity to a photon. How about calling it a New-Maxton?
1.10 Doppler Shifts and Red Shifts
Doppler shift is the apparent
change in wavelength of the radiation from a source due to its relative motion
in the line of sight. When the source is
moving toward the point of observation, it is noted as a blue shift. When the source is moving away from the
source it is noted as a red shift. To
avoid confusion, gravity shift will always refer to
Hubble’s law or the law of red
shifts interprets the radial velocities (the red shifts of spectral lines) of
heavenly bodies. The more distant a
heavenly body, the greater in direct proportion is its speed of recession. Today the only known cause of these red
shifts, other than Doppler, is suspected gravitational fields.
All scientists do not accept the
interpretation of the red shift law as an indication of an expanding
universe. They argue that observed red
shifts of distant heavenly (namely galaxies) may not be Doppler shifts at all
but may be caused by some unknown effect on light. Many scientist, apparently, are troubled by
the concept of extremely high speeds with which the heavenly bodies are
receding. The new development of
frequency variation because of our new energy equation also questions the high
speed of that recession.
Our new energy concept and subsequent derivation for
frequency comes to the rescue and explains the shifts. Shifts of frequency along the line sight are
Doppler shifts and gravity shifts (
1.11 Frequency Shifts
In developing the energy equation at the atomic level, definite values for R, f, l, etc. were dictated. In dealing with radiation effects of the atom in the macroscopic world, the intrinsic properties remain unchanged. The external fields add or subtract like-vectors from those intrinsic fields produced in the atom and override them.
This new energy concept has the capability of presenting energy diagrams for any type of radiation in terms of the Poynting vector, GFF and radial distance. This is extremely helpful in studying the heavens and the determination of Doppler and Gravitational (red) shifts.
Equation 4 is used as the starting point to reach into outer space and to look at frequency shifts. The R-value in the following equations is the distance to the radiation source and the radial velocity of the source is the speed with which it approaches (blue shift) or recedes (red shift) from a set position (e.g. a fixed point on earth).
E = h/2p [{e}/{G }]B = (h/2p) eB/G 4
eB º S the Poynting Vector 5
and E = hf 6
Substituting: f = (1/2p) S/G 7
For frequency shift in the radial direction, differentiate equation 7 with respect to R.
df/dR = 1/2p [ df/dS (dS/dR) + df/dG (dG/dR) ] 8
Each term in equation 8 will be treated separately and then substituted and solved. For the first partial term df/dS, differentiate 7 with respect to S.
df/dS = 1/2pG 9
It is a change in frequency with respect to S and indicates that it is inversely proportional to gravity force field.
NOTE
The second term dS/dR = 0 at the atomic level because e and B change in such a way that their product remains constant and thus S is a constant.
However, frequency change with respect to radial distance requires the following considerations of the atomic source being observed. S is a radiation energy wave and its energy is proportional to frequency.
S
= eB
= kw,
where w
= 2pf,
f = vradial/R, and k is a constant
The positive crests of e and B (orthogonal to each other) occurs every 2p radians.
Therefore: S = kw = k2pf = k2p vradial/R 10
The second term for equation 8 is equation 10 differentiated with respect to R; it becomes:
dS/dR = -4kp vradial/R2 11
Combining equations 9 and 11:
df/dS (dS/dR) = -2kvradial/GR2 12
Assuming radial direction, equation 8 is Doppler shift by definition. The third term is frequency shift due to the gravitational force field. Differentiating the third term of 7 with respect to G gives the following results, equation 13.
df/dG = -S/pG2 13
For the fourth term of equation 8, differentiate G with respect to R, G = m/R2 because the gravity force field varies according to the inverse square of the distance from the earth (observer is assumed on earth).
dG/dR = -3m/R3. 14
The following is a review of common definitions for field intensities in their simplest form at the atomic level because their effects produce the radiation source. Remember the sources of radiation are characteristic spectral frequencies of gaseous elements found in space. Every elemental atom can be identified by its characteristic frequency. By measuring variations (frequency shifts of radiation from stars, galaxies etc), a determination of radial velocities and distances of these sources can be found.
e = e/R2, B = pR2ef/c, G = m/R2, S = eB (Atomic level)
And substituting S/G2 = e2fR4/m2c 15
Combining equations 13, 14, and 15
df/dG (dG/dR) = 3e2/pm (vradial/c) 16
Collecting and combining terms and substituting equations 12 and 16 into equation 8, it becomes:
df/dR = 1/2p [-2kvradial/GR2 + 3e2/pm (vradial/c)] 8
(Change in l)/l = vradial/c º Doppler shift and the vradial/G term indicates a shift due to Gravity)
Note
Hubble’s law or the law of red shifts interprets the radial
velocities (the red shifts of spectral lines) of heavenly bodies. The more distant a heavenly body, the greater
in direct proportion is its speed of recession.
Today the only known cause of these red shifts, other than Doppler, is
suspected gravitational fields.
Many scientist, apparently, are troubled by the concept of
extremely high speeds with which the heavenly bodies are receding. To avoid confusion in this article, gravity
shift will always refer to
According to the literature frequencies shifts are
attributed to Doppler shifts and red shifts (object moving away). Our results indicate a combination of the two.
Implicit in equation 8 are the speed of light and the
radial velocity because the original equation 7 contains the Poynting vector, which is derived from Maxwell’s
equations. Equation 8 has information
that says that frequency change (shift) is the result of Doppler Effect and GFF
of the object observed as well as its intensity. This gravity shift is different from the so-called
“Red Shift” talked about in the literature which is dependent on Doppler
Effect. “Red Shift” used in that context
refers to whether the object is moving away from the observer. In the development of equation 8, the