Prologue

What is the unifying of all forces, better known as a unified theory and pursued by Einstein?  Einstein, prompted by quantum theory, wanted a theory, in which objects, particles etc. are real and factual in lieu of probabilities.  He felt that some of his peers considered the probabilities of quantum theory as fact.  He rejected the probabilities aspect of quantum theory with his famous quote, “God doesn’t play dice with the universe.”

Einstein’s theory of everything attempted to connect his general relativity gravity with electricity and magnetism of Maxwell.  In addition, Maxwell with his field theory was instrumental in the way Einstein formatted his new coordinate system of gravity (fields).  Einstein died in 1955 unable to accomplish his goal of a unified theory.

However, it planted a seed, and scientists have continued to work on a theory that combines all forces.  Quantum physics has been able to connect electromagnetic forces and nuclear forces but thus far, has been unable to include Einstein’s gravity.  The most recent attempt to connect all forces is a string theory, which treats particles as vibrating strings.  However, it is more complex and has more possibilities and fantasies than the 75 mathematical equations (tensors) explaining Einstein’s General Relativity Theory (GRT).

Most discoveries in physics are simple solutions to complex phenomena and based sometimes on simple mathematics and sometimes on empirical data, whose results expand knowledge.  Existing classical physics (physics law prior to 1900) is unable to explain conclusive data of light interacting with materials and releasing electrons.  The photoelectric effect is a simple math equation brought about by this data and explained by Einstein.  It explains photon energy,

hf = 1/2 mv2 + eφ

“hf” is photon energy necessary to overcome the work function at the surface for an electron and 1/2mv2 is the kinetic energy of the electron upon release. 

Another example is DeBroglie’s contribution that waves and particles have equality through simple known entities.  The result is our known fact and the root of the TV’s we use everyday.

 

E = mc2 = hf (single quantum)

mc(c) = hf

mc = hf/c= h/λ and   λ= h/p

These are two nice simple examples that deal with great discoveries.

Quantum physics has proven itself and has predicted outcomes prior to their discovery.  Quantum theory was able to predict the transistor and tunneling effect of electrons prior to their discovery.  Quantum physics is for the most part mathematical, and it uses a wave equation (Shroedinger wave equation) to show probable configuration, behavior, and movement of electrons in an atom.  The wave equation preempts F = ma (Newton’s second law) for particles at the atomic level.  The wave equation was necessary because of the way atomic particles interacted with electromagnetic waves.  Quantum physics is a synthesis of when to treat atomic particles (electrons) as a particle and when to treat them as a wave.

To date, scientists have been unable to expand on Einstein’s unified field theory (electricity and magnetism with Einstein’s gravity).  The attempt to unify forces through the string theory opens more confusion is based on conjecture and wishful thinking with little or nothing to confirm it. 

It is time to put SRT, the GRT, and those concepts derived from them on the shelf and to look for new simple theories.  Why?  Einstein’s gravity is still being researched and developed after ninety years.  It is complex and conclusions are mysterious.  It is not the magic glue to bring all forces together. 

Another approach to unifying all forces can combine electric and magnetic forces of Maxwell, gravity forces of Newton with the nuclear forces.  It is a simple solution.  It requires letting go of some old ideas because it denies one of Einstein’s postulate.  Besides being simple, it is revolutionary.  It is a new concept, which challenges the comfort zone and semantics of Einstein’s relativity.  It is time to test this more simple approach.  So let us all stretch from our intellectual comfort zones and see if we can agree.

Scientists have attempted (for approximately 90 years) to bridge quantum physics with Einstein’s relativity and it has been unsuccessful.  Their theory of everything wants to be all-inclusive containing the atomic world and the universe.  A simple manipulation of an energy term from quantum physics is a solution, which can connect the microscopic world with the big world of Newton and Maxwell.  It is presented to my peers for evaluation and comments.  It is a much simpler approach than using relativity concepts.  In the presentation, another question comes forth about the distinction between probability and causality in quantum physics.  Please review these new challenges with an open mind.

The new energy concept is presented here without proof. 

Energy = h εB/G                       (1)

ε is electric field intensity, B is magnetic vector potential and G is Newton’s gravity.  The article on this WEB site “Absolute Time and Distance”, presents all proofs, justifications, and function for equation 1.

A new energy concept, which combines all forces, is stated without proof (equation 1 in the Preface).  It has the potential of unifying all forces and if proven can add to advances in the physics world.  Einstein was the first to suggest and work on a unified field theory to combine electricity, magnetism (E&M of Maxwell) and his own gravity (G) based on the General Relativity Theory (GRT).  Quantum physics has provided an answer to electromagnetic and nuclear forces, but thus far has not found a way to include gravity (Einstein’s gravity).

In this book, a new energy concept (equation) is developed from a concept in quantum physics, which connects the behavior of microscopic objects with that of world, as we know it.  Electricity and magnetism of Maxwell combines with the gravity of Newton (not Einstein’s) and with nuclear forces.  Does the scientific community care?  No, not if it answers all the questions of a unified theory.  It is a quasi-classical/quantum approach and it simplifies the answers to many complex situations.  The new concept gives a completely simplified dimension in physics.  It replaces some of the mystery of Einstein’s relativity and the latest string theory.

In order to accept this new concept, it is necessary to stretch from our technological comfort zones and to explore new vistas.  This new theory is an energy conversion concept in terms of fields (electric, magnetic and Newton’s gravity).   Energy has direct dependence on a radiation term (εB) and has an inverse dependence on a gravity term of Newton.  As a result, implicit in the energy equation are roots for deriving the speed of the radiation term.  In the process of that derivation, it is suggested that the speed of light (SOL) can no longer be considered a universal constant, which denies Einstein’s postulate, the basis of his Special Relativity Theory (SRT).  Since the SRT and subsequently the GRT (because of its connection to the SRT) become questionable, it is necessary to replace and/or displace any discrepancies found.  The new energy concept expands the physics world, can replace it, and helps simplify it.  In the articles following, Einstein’s Relativity is reviewed and the new energy concept is presented, developed, justified and applied to the SOL, relativity, radiation and gravity, measurements of time and distance, Einstein’s measurements for time and distance, quantum physics, astronomy and cosmology.  In all physics books and literature, the “c” defines SOL.  In this book, SOL is shown to be a variable.  In order to avoid confusion, “c” defines Einstein’s universal constant according to classical physics and SOL refers to the new energy concept and its derivation for the variable speed of light.

Prior to discovery of this new concept, my comfort zone was to question nothing and especially Einstein’s works.  The new concept has great potential and it is necessary to share it with the scientific community.  

Note

The new concept presented here questions only the main tenet (Einstein’s postulate) of the SRT.  It denies that “c” is a universal constant and presents a solution to how it varies.  The rest of Einstein’s work is not contingent on whether “c” is a universal constant or not.  Too much cannot be said about Einstein’s contributions to quantum physics, his explanation of the photoelectric effect (Nobel Prize), nuclear physics E = mc2..  His thought provoking theories of relativity and many more contributions to the world earned him, “Man of the 20th Century.” 

So many times scientific literature gives the impression that E = mc2 is synonymous with the SRT, and readers fear that anything that denies the SRT denies Einstein’s famous equation.  His equation is a derivative of mass depending on velocity (m = m0/1 – v2/c2, m0 is rest mass, v is its velocity and c is classical constant).  The force (F) on a particle being accelerated from rest in a constant electric field (ε one-dimensional an in positive x direction) is εe.  The dependence of mass on velocity is experimentally derived as:

m = m0/(1 - v2/c2)1/2

And by substitution:  εe = d(mv)/dt = m = m0 dv/dt /(1 - v2/c2)1/2

 Expanding by the binomial expansion results in:

m = m0 {1 + ˝ v2/c2 +1/2 (v2/c2)2 + ……n(n - 1)(n – 2)/n! (v2/c2)n}

mc2 = m0c2 + ˝ m0v2 +1/2 m0c2 (v2/c2)2 +…..  and mc2 = m0c2 + ˝ mv2

˝ m0v2 is kinetic energy, 1/2mv2 = E = (m – m0)c2 = Δmc2.

“c” is a constant and doesn’t care whether it is a universal constant.  The development to follow will justify and deny SOL being a universal constant.

Many people are interested in Einstein’s relativity and they find that the literature is stereotyped and filled with repetition from explanation to explanation. They find that the concepts and mathematics are difficult.  Presenting Einstein’s concepts removes some of the mystery surrounding his work and the new concept that challenges SOL adds to that understanding.

The new concept questions the credibility of treating SOL as a universal constant.  The number one question remains; is the speed of light a universal constant as defined without proof by Einstein?  It will be developed and demonstrated that SOL is a variable.  It produces a new set of questions.  The new questions are; what is a variable speed of light, what causes its variation, does it expand on present knowledge, how does it affect present day physics, the work of Newton, Maxwell, Einstein, et al?  Thoughts about the new energy concept open the door to long sought answers.

Probably, the most revolutionary change is the development of a variable speed of light.  SOL is no longer an initial condition, a universal constant.  As a result, the main tenet of the SRT is denied.  The new thought process is; what are the variables on which SOL is dependent.  The speed is still faster than anything known.  By being a variable and not an initial condition, time and distance measurements are never contingent on or subject to the movement of the observed or the observer.  The GRT that leans heavily on the credibility of the SRT becomes unnecessary.  Is a new gravity or new coordinate system (according to Einstein) necessary for measurements of time and distance in an objective real world?  The new concept shows gravity, electricity, magnetism and nuclear forces (implicit) connected to the small as well as the big world.  However, Newton’s gravity preempts Einstein’s GRT gravity.

Except for relativity, the works of Einstein remain unquestioned; E = mc2 and does not care if “c” is a universal constant or not.  Einstein’s Nobel Prize winning explanation of the photoelectric effect remains unquestioned.  The works of Newton and our space program remain intact, and Maxwell’s electricity and magnetism definitions remain as they are.  His electromagnetic radiation (light) is a constant speed, but its value of constant speed depends on the medium in which it is measured.  In his development of his equations, there are built-in variables that affect the speed of light.  The effect of these variables and the new energy concept, help accentuate a compatibility with Newton’s works.  The SOL takes on different constant values contingent on the media (atmosphere, water, glass materials, space, moon, planets, stars etc.).

The problem at the beginning of the 20th century of the search for a fixed reference for comparing the SOL no longer exists.  Our latest technologies with synchronous satellites offer a reference point with respect to the earth.  These reference points of virtual absolute rest can measure the SOL in all directions in a spin and/or radial direction with respect to the earth, longitudinally and at different latitudes.

Early in the 20th century, a revolution in physics began.  Actually, the revolution began from the first time man was able to discuss and put into writing the wonders of the world that he knew to be empirically correct.  As science advanced, it became more sophisticated and was able to express these wonders mathematically, and was even able to theorize about the unexplained.  Newton’s works explained forces, gravity, invented mathematics (calculus), and with the help of Kepler’s laws, devised the mathematical expressions for travel of the planets around the sun.  Maxwell’s works in electricity and magnetism combined the works of Faraday, Coulomb, Volta, Oersted, Ampere, and others into four equations that bear his name.  Bohr created a model for the atom, which had fixed orbits for electrons around the nucleus as well as defined boundaries in the form of energy levels.

The reader is urged to investigate the development of the above concepts..  The new energy concept (equation) introduced has many solutions, which overlap with present day as well as classical physics.  The solutions are quasi classical and quantum in nature and are an extension of present day physics.  They contain some of Newton, some of Maxwell, some of Einstein and require an understanding of quantum physics.  Much of modern physics preempts some of the classical concepts.  The drastic differences between classical and modern physics are an education for everyone.  The historical development from classical to modern physics is the basis of understanding for all scientists. 

In this book, an isolated energy state of an electron opens the door to a new vista in the world of physics.  It is an expansion of quantum physics that combines gravity, electromagnetic and nuclear forces.  It has the potential of unifying all forces.  In the process, it becomes necessary to take a new look at the classical constant ”c”, radiation and gravity connection, absolute measurement of time and distance (according to the Bureau of Standards), Einstein’s relativity and his subjective measurements of time and distance, Doppler and gravity shifts and astronomy and cosmology.  It is a gratifying challenge to revisit these technologies.  This unification of all forces at the small world level in terms of fields opens the door to combining all like fields and forces of the big world (universe).

All the articles on this WEB site go to great lengths to replace “c” as a universal constant with a variable SOL derived from a new energy equation. Denying old concepts requires replacing them with concepts that add to and expand scientific knowledge.  It is relatively easy to prove or disprove that the SOL is a variable.  Today’s scientific instrumentation is sophisticated and reliable and the synchronous satellites provide a reference of absolute rest with respect to the earth.  The Michelson/Morley experiment was looking to find a reference for the SOL, which today is a moot point.

It is necessary to review Einstein’s theories, his “c” postulate, and all measurements based on his theories.  The new energy concept presented is another way to look at the speed of light and questions Einstein’s universal “c” postulate.  It forces a new look at the SRT and GRT.  It also requires a new look at absolute time and distance.  The works of Einstein, Newton, and Maxwell compare the use of time and distance.  There are no absolutes but only repeatable references created by the scientific community, which can be traced to the Bureau of Standards.  Absolute by this author distinguishes time and distance measurement referred to the standards in lieu of subjective time and distance measurements according to Einstein theories.

The article on the “Speed of Light” investigates the measurement of SOL.  Is it a universal constant or can it be treated as common ordinary variable?  According to the new concept presented here, it is not a universal constant.  It depends on media of transmittal, wavelength, and Newton’s gravity.

In the remaining articles, the new energy equation will investigate how a variable SOL affects and impacts facts in the scientific world.  The demands on relativity will become obvious.  A variable SOL confirms that Newton and Maxwell’s works show no deference.

What does the new energy equation mean to black hole theory?

E = hεB/G = 0 —for infinite gravity

Frequency shifts, Doppler as well as Gravity, will be investigated.  Frequency shifts in the heavens address the “world of differences”.  The new energy equation can show that frequency shifts are not merely due to either Doppler or Gravity but are always a combination of the two.

The energy equation has been derived and developed and it advances and extends quantum physics (because it derived from a concept there).  A beauty is contained because it has the potential of reaching out into space.  It is an extension of concepts already known and adds the dimension of a force field and its affect on spectral frequencies of the atom as well as the speed of electromagnetic radiation (light).  The energy field equation is the direct result of an algebraic manipulation of an atomic level concept derived from a Bohr magneton energy state.  In the process, it presents itself as a stepping-stone from that energy state to a universal concept as an energy transporting entity similar to a photon.

In support of the quantum physics concept used, quantum physics reviews all the definitions for the modern day atom.  An article is devoted to Quantum Physics.  The modern day atom and its characteristics contain the information that reaches the earth in the study of our solar system and the universe.  The detection of radiation from space is essential to all studies and discoveries in astronomy and cosmology. 

Quantum physic’s characteristic frequencies for the elemental atom are important to Cosmology and astronomy and help analyze the heavens.  In the article “Understanding the Universe”, the new energy concept treats frequency shifts of radiant energy and show that shifts are due to Doppler as well as gravity (Newton) of the object being observed .  Most scientific literature give the impression that frequency shifts are Doppler shifts.  Red shifts are an extension of the Doppler shift and are thought to be an expanding universe.  The new energy concept develops df/dR (f is frequency and R is radial distance/actually Doppler shift) which has two components.  One component is the standard Doppler shift and the other component is a gravity shift (Newton) due to the gravity of the planets, stars, galaxies, moons, etc.