1.Quantum Physics
1.1
Review/Atomic Physics
In this article it is appropriate that definitions of quantum physics be reviewed because the roots of the new energy equation are found there. A quantum concept was used to develop a new energy equation and it has the potential of unifying all forces. This theory’s development is meant to give us an appreciation of how this small world works with the big world. It also gives a new twist to causality and probability at the atomic level.
The modern atom is discussed in terms of a wave function as a dependent variable of a wave equation. The electrons surrounding the nucleus of the atom are described in terms of quantum numbers derived as a result of the Shroedinger wave equation. The quantum numbers specify the way in which the wave function varies from point to point in space. The quantum numbers are derived as solutions (Eigen values) to the wave equation. They are an approximation. The wave equation can only be solved for the hydrogen atom.
The article is meant to demonstrate that the new energy
equation is an energy equation of state for all electrons of any atom. It produces a common connection to all
electrons which until now have only been defined separately by quantum numbers.
This energy state at the atomic level
has opened up a new world of physics to be investigated. Does the new energy equation change or extend
physics? The sections to follow are to
give the reader an appreciation of energy systems and to explain how the new
energy equation complements and extends physics. Quantum physics uses a statistical approach
to the energy of the electron in an atom.
The new energy equation suggests causality be also involved. In order to study causality, it is necessary
to look at some of the highlights of atomic physics.
1.2 Atom
Figure 1 shows the traditional or classical structure for
the atom found in most of the literature.
Atoms are characterized by energy levels, which correspond to various
distances of their electrons from their nuclei.
By absorbing or emitting energy (photon), an electron can move from one
to another of those levels (synonymous with raising or lowering its energy). There are only certain discrete energy levels
for each kind of atom and the levels define the distances for electrons with
relation to the nucleus. The absorbed or
emitted radiation only occurs at certain energies or wave frequencies (an
electron changing its radial position).
These are known as spectral identifying frequencies for a particular
atom (some element). Electrons in the
atom of Figure 1 are at different energy levels.
Figure 1.
1.3
Bohr’s Influence
Bohr took the first step toward an explanation of atomic
spectra. He based his work on photon
theory of light. He postulated that an electron
in an atom could be in only one or another set of discrete energy levels. And he further postulated that only one
photon was emitted at a time. The change
in energy of an electron from one orbit to another orbit is expressed as
ΔE = hf.
Our modern atom is a combination of Bohr’s work in
conjunction with the fact that an electron can be treated as a wave (see the
work of DeBroglie in the next section). The Bohr model was the first dynamic model of
the atom. It expanded on the classical
models of Thompson and Rutherford. His
model defines boundaries (an isolated energy state) for treating an electron as
a wave. A photon (particle of fixed
energy) is necessary to alter these boundaries of the electron wave.
Bohr in making his model was influenced by the fact that
the hydrogen atom displayed radiant line spectra. Classical physics predicted a continuous
spectrum of radiation for the atom.
Bohr’s concept of an electron occupying only a defined orbit helped
explain the line spectra and characteristic frequencies of atoms.
Many of the concepts of the Bohr model of the atom have been preempted by a quantum approach. However, his third postulate (an electron can only be in a shell in which the distance around the nucleus is an exact fit for the wavelength of the electron; 2pR = nl) lives on as part of the wave concept of the electron and can actually be derived from it. An electron must be considered as some sort of a wave spread out through space and localized at a point. These principles lead to a wave equation (Shroedinger's equation) that must be satisfied by an electron in an atom, subject to boundary conditions determined by phase conditions for a wave determined by Bohr’s third postulate.
1.3.1
Bohr’s Third Postulate
In order that the wave may have an exact fit (no standing
waves) on the circumference of the circle (or ellipse), it must include some
integral number of wavelengths (see Figure 2).
Figure 2
Think of an electron as a wave (wave function as a
dependent variable of a wave equation) extending in a circle (assumed, but it
can be and ellipse) around the nucleus.
The wavelength of a particle of mass m, moving with a velocity v, is
given according to wave mechanics as: l = h/mv, where: h is Planck's constant and l is
wavelength. Then if R is the radius and
2pR
= nl,
where n = 1, 2, 3, etc (Figure 2b). By
substitution, it can be proven that this contains the angular momentum and the
third Bohr postulate.
Assuming a circular orbit, 2pR = nh/mv or mvR = nh/2p, but mvR is angular momentum of an electron and it is observed that the wave mechanical picture leads to Bohr’s third postulate. The angular momentum equals some integral multiple of n/2p (see Figure 3).
Figure 3
1.4 Quantum Physics
Quantum physics is an extension of classical physics, the Bohr model, and its accompanying postulates. Atomic particles (electrons) interact with electromagnetic waves and the results of these interactions could not be explained in terms of the Bohr model and classical physics. DeBroglie suggested that matter (atoms) may act in many ways like light, which is dualistic in nature. Light sometimes behaves as waves and other times as particles. One way to deal with it was to tie the electrons and particles to wave concepts. DeBroglie's went that extra step and equated photon energy to atomic energy (both considered particles) in the following manner:
E = hf = mc2
Where hf is particulate photon energy and mc2 is particulate energy. And:
hf = mc(c)
hf/c = mc
Note that the two particulate energies equated result in a wave concept, where:
Wavelength l = h/mc, mc is momentum of the electron (particle).
Wave (quantum) physics was born and it introduced partial solutions for atomic phenomena that could not be explained by the Bohr model. It redefined the nature of the electron in an atom in terms of a wave and as a particle and accounted for its probable position in the atom. It is also the roots of our modern day television.
At the heart of quantum physics is the Shroedinger wave equation, which can account for atomic particles interacting with electromagnetic waves and it also replaces F = ma (Newton's second law) for motion of a particle on the atomic scale sizes. One dimensional Shroedinger wave equation: h2/8π2m (α2ψ/αx2) – Pψ = h/2πi(αψ/αt) where h is Planck’s constant, P is potential energy of the electron “i” is the square root of minus 1 and ψ is a probability function. For full treatment of the wave equation and derivation of the quantum numbers the reader is referred to reference 1. This discussion will be about the physical significance of the electrons in an atom and expansion of physics via the new energy equation.
In the light of DeBroglie's work (he showed that particle energy is synonymous with wave energy for an electron), a wave equation was necessary to show how electrons move from place to place and interact with electromagnetic waves. The quantum theory specifies certain regions in which an electron is more or less likely to be found. The electron occupies a position somewhere in a shell (energy state) with other electrons around the nucleus. There are concentric shells (the number of shells is determined by the particular element) and each shell represents a different energy level separated from each other by fixed quantum (E = hf). For an electron to move from shell to shell, it is necessary to absorb energy when the electron makes a transition from a lower to a higher level or to give up energy for a higher level to a lower level. It is a fixed quantum of energy hf and its frequency is characteristic of the particular atom.
1.5 Electron Identification
Quantum physics answers questions about atoms containing multiple electrons and their wave/particle duality. It is also a synthesis of two approaches of when to treat the electron as a particle and when to treat it as a wave. For a better explanation of this statement, the reader is referred to a quantum physics book and all the experiments of wave/particle duality that ultimately led to the Shroedinger wave equation.
The modern atom is treated in terms of a wave function as a dependent variable of a wave equation (Shroedinger wave equation). Each electron surrounding the nucleus is described in terms of what are called quantum numbers for its energy state. There are sets of quantum numbers that specify the way the wave function varies from point to point in space. Each set of quantum numbers corresponds to a physically distinct wave function of a particle (electron/wave) in a box. The quantum numbers are considered Eigen values in the solution of the wave equation and are an approximation. The Shroedinger wave equation can be solved for the hydrogen atom only but it is able to predict solutions for atoms with more than one electron.
The Exclusion Principle insists on the uniqueness of each electron in an atom and states that the interaction between electrons is more than a force between electrons. It describes electron interaction is in terms of isolated energy states, where each state has a set of quantum numbers, and even this procedure is not simple or complete.
The following definitions (result of solutions to the wave equation) assign isolated energy states:
1. Quantum numbers associated with electrons are represented by the symbols n, l, and m.
2. n is the principal or radial quantum number (radius, defines the shell and kinetic energy)
3. l is the azimuthal quantum number (orientation of orbit defining potential energy).
4. m is the magnetic quantum number addressing the angular momentum of the electron.
5. ms is a magnetic moment due to spin of the electron and is sometimes combined with angular momentum.
1.6
Isolated States
The development of the new energy equation is a simple universal equation and it too is an isolated energy state at the atomic level. The derivation and justification for the energy equation can be reviewed in the article A New Vision on this WEB site.
E = heB/G
Applied to an isolated energy state for the electron in the atom, it changes none of the quantum numbers. However, each electron now has a common connection to each other through the new energy equation. If electrons are in the same shell, their G’s (gravity) are equal. Otherwise, they are uniquely positioned at an R-value compatible with characteristic energy levels and phase of the elemental atom.
In quantum physics, radiation or absorption process for an electron is expressed as,
Photon energy hf
= E2 - E1 , where E is an energy
level of an electron.
And the following is an energy exchange of state for these same electrons using the new energy equation.
ΔE = hfspectral
= heB/G2 - heB/G1 (2)
Where:
G1 = me/R12 and G2
= me/R22
Equation (2) is identical to ΔE = hf and does not preempt it. Equation (2) has additional information about energy levels suggesting causality in lieu of probability.
According to quantum physics, an electron’s exact location in an atom cannot be talked about. It is assigned as a most probable configuration according to its radial, azimuthal and magnetic characteristics. It is known that there are permissible electron orbits and forbidden electron orbits. The permissible orbits are the direct result of the electron wave being an exact fit in an orbit with no standing waves (2pR = nl). Alternatively, it can be said that the electron wave is phase compatible with the orbit. Equation (2) fortifies this statement because the R-values of the equation are supported by empirical data for elemental characteristic frequencies of the atom.
When an electron changes orbit, it must change by a certain ΔR. Since R-values for the electron are defined, these values cannot be probable. The changes are predictable and are related to the energy of the photons involved. The cause of the orbit change is either absorption of photon energy (electron changes to a higher energy level in the atom) or release of photon energy (electron changes to a lower energy level in the atom). The photons are characteristic for the atom being observed which is very important in our study of the universe.
In cosmology work and observing the universe, characteristic frequencies of atoms define materials that are observed. Again, it is hoped that probability and uncertainty do not play a part. It would be nice if all the variables (speed of the observed [e.g. a star], Doppler shift, gravity shift, magnetic variations, electric variations etc.) could be taken into account when viewing the universe. The new energy equation is capable of accomplishing all necessary aspects of frequency shifts and is presented as a measuring tool in the article Understanding the Universe on this WEB site.
1.7 Energy Exchange
Restrictions on the quantum numbers and states must be carefully observed. Because the Exclusion Principle states that, there can at most be one electron in each quantum state in an atom. Each principal energy state for an electron has a combination of quantum numbers and that combination decides how the electrons of the atom are distributed. In the normal state electrons in an atom are at their lowest possible energy level.
E = hf is a simple definition for the complex exchange of energy in an atom. These photons are detected as the result of an electron changing shells. According to quantum physics, hf by itself means nothing, unless there is a reference. Electron "a" exists in shell x and it changes to a new position in shell y. It has to take on a new set of quantum numbers because the radial, azimuthal, and magnetic properties change. But it is not very practical to follow the electron in this manner.
In dealing with the path of the electrons in an atom (both classical and quantum physics have gone to great lengths to define them), it is hard to keep track of all the variables. It is easy to get lost in the interaction of symbols and theories, i. e. quantum numbers, states, classical vs quantum etc. It is known that electrons are positioned around the nucleus, that they are wave like in nature as they travel, and that they follow the rules of particles when they change energy states. In the solution of the wave equation, a certain number of these energy states are allowed in each shell. Photon energy (hf) is a fixed amount of energy that is absorbed or emitted when an electron changes from an energy state in one shell to an energy state in another shell. In fact, the total number of electrons in a shell is predictable from the relative intensities of absorption or emission of unique frequencies.
The new energy equation (E = h eB/G) is an isolated energy state for an electron and it coexists with all the electrons defined by quantum numbers. All energy states remain unique but each energy state now has a common characteristic expressed by our field equation. The repeated spectral frequencies for the atom are an indication of its stability. The emission or absorption of a photon hf accomplishes a change in energy of the electron. Stability of the atom and equality of forces is dictated by the phase conditions, which are part of the energy equation (Bohr’s third postulate). Spectral frequencies are an effect and the cause is derived from the new energy equation in terms of radial change (via fixed gravity points), phase, and the wavelength of the electron in a shell.
R
Figure 4
As we have seen, the electron treated as a wave has a frequency which puts demand on the orbit (certain R-value), such that an integral number of cycles exactly fits the orbit. The electron/wave has its definite frequency and that frequency remains a constant from shell to shell or energy state to energy state. Imagine the single sine wave as wrapping around the orbit an even number of times.
Figure 4a demonstrates how the electron wave must position itself in moving around in its shell to insure proper phase conditions (no standing waves). The l shown in Figure 4a is divorced from the l derived from spectral frequency for the photon energy required for exchange of electrons between shells. The radius R must change in multiple of whole numbers in order for this condition to be maintained and 2pR = nl, where l is the same as that shown in Figure 4.
1.8 Gravitational Effects
The third Bohr postulate has been previously reviewed and our new concept has been developed for a universal characteristic energy state.
The new energy equation of state E = h eB/G (1)
When considering an energy change of state for an electron expressed in terms of the energy state equation, eB can be considered an energy term for a single electron in a shell and is an electromagnetic wave and energy at a point. What about G? This energy of the electron at a point in an atom can be at only one R-value according to Bohr’s third postulate and subsequently derived from quantum physics considerations. Its position in the shell is some most probable position but its R-value is predetermined. It has to be definite because of the phase conditions of the wave. Causality plays an important role here because energy (hf) defines the R-value change. In addition, the wave of the electron can fit only one orbit exactly. The electron wave in an orbit is the same wave from orbit to orbit. Observed spectral frequencies are characteristic of an atom are not probable, they actually can be measured. The spectral frequencies occur during the absorption or emission of energy during atomic activity (e.g. during the voltage breakdown of a gas or laser activity at the junction of a semiconductor, etc.). They, in turn, define or cause the electron positioning according to R-values and phase.
Gravitational effects are an important aspect of the electron. In the past, gravitational effect or forces for the electron was considered nil with respect to electrodynamics forces. Presented here is the new energy equation, in which the energy is inversely proportional to the gravity force field and it can be applied universally.
In section 1.6 an energy change of state of an electron according to Quantum physics and the new energy equation was presented.
ΔE = hfspectral
= heB/G2 - heB/G1 (2)
Where: G1 = me/R12 and G2 = me/R22
A photon hf (equation 2) is required to change from one energy level to the other, where G1 and G2 define the energy level or shell. At the atomic level the energy state equation can only take on sets of values consistent with the energy levels of the shells (R-value).
However, equations
1 and 2 are completely general and can be applied universally where R is a
variable without restrictions. The new
energy equation was developed in conjunction with photon theory for the atom
but is not restricted to only the atom because of its relationship to all
energy systems. They are the implicit potentials
and fields of the atom and the effect of the media having these same potentials
and fields which combine with them.
1.9 Gravitational Force Field at a Point
The concepts of gravity fields and gravity waves are
still being questioned and investigated.
The scientific community is looking to discover gravity waves,
gravitons, field's etc. The new energy
equation introduced here depends on an electromagnetic wave (εB) and inversely on
To investigate this possibility, it is necessary to solve the new energy equation for G. The new energy equation is restated here.
E = h/2p
[{e}/{G
}]B = (h/2p) eB/G (1)
Solving: G
= (h/2p)S/E,
S º eB (3)
Equation 3 for G offers an interesting suggestion. It states that as energy an E of S (possibly a beam of radiation) becomes greater and greater, and then G will decrease. It indicates that it is possible to decrease GFF at a point to zero? This is quite a concept stating that G can be varied with energy beams, since G = S/E. Is it a wave?
Continuing the investigation, differentiate G (equation 3) with respect to time.
dG/dt = h/2p
[dG/dS
(dS/dt)
+ dG/dE
(dE/dt)] (4)
It can be assumed that S is a constant at a point and E (e.g. beam energy) can be made to vary with time.
Therefore: dG/dt = h/2p
[dG/dE
(dE/dt)] (5)
Equation 5 states that a time varying beam of energy can cause a time variation of G at a point. How about a laser lifter!!!!!
1.10 Commonality of Energy States
Expansion of knowledge obtained from the Bohr model,
quantum approach and the new energy equation lead to practical aspects of the
atom. It is a cause and effect approach
that fulfills all necessary stability requirements at the atomic level. There are no restrictions or uncertainty
about the shell (thus the radius) where the electron can be found. This approach uses a convolution technique
proving the causes from the effect (spectra measured) and introduces
gravitational effects (necessary R definition).
There are two considerations about R for an electron during energy
exchange; one is the change due the shell change and the other is the change in
R that results in no standing waves in the random planes. The two R's are related and can be solved for
in terms of each other. The gravitational force on the electron remains
negligible but the radius of the electron position plays an important roll in
the stability concept of the atom. The
field concept for the atom dictates the dependence on e, B, and G internal and external to the atom. It has opened the door for the interpretation
of observed frequencies (through a telescope, on the moon, in water, whatever
media of electromagnetic wave travel) as a function of environment and a
variable SOL.
An atom can be a radiating source. Since the isolated energy states are identified in terms of fields as well as the quantum numbers, all internal and external fields that add or subtract like vectors with each other effect them. And just like the SOL, frequency changes at the atomic level encounter shifts as a function of the media in which they are being observed because of field variations. Radiated photons are not restricted to quantum jumps. All electromagnetic radiation can be explored using the new energy equation that has been developed at the atomic level in terms of fields. Field energy interacts with all fields of the universe.
1.11 New Energy Equation of State
This energy equation ties all fields intrinsic and extrinsic to the atom and to all electromagnetic waves. It has far-reaching consequences when dealing with Doppler shifts and gravity shifts, which is covered in the article Understanding the Universe.
The energy equation of state E = h eB/G (1)
Time varying electric fields give rise to time varying magnetic fields and vice versa and in the dynamic case it is impossible to distinguish between electric and magnetic energy (cause and effect). This proves to be the case at the atomic level and our energy equation demonstrates that fact. These characteristics and G (not probable states) are not dictated by quantum numbers and probability. They are independent. The Poynting vector, eB defines energy (flow) of a wave at a point and it is in perfect agreement with the quantum treatment of an electron (eB’s source). It also extends the new equation to include all electromagnetic waves. The new energy equation for an electron in terms of fields has a personality of its own with unrestricted degrees of freedom.
It is possible the energy state equation can be treated as a separate entity and can be considered as a wave itself just like hf. The wave can be investigated and defined under various external field conditions. Separate energy states and their fields and force field characteristics are general and universal and follow the mathematical developments presented, thus far. They are universal and apply independent of the atomic level, from which the energy equation was developed. This energy concept has the capability of presenting energy diagrams for any type of radiation in terms of the Poynting vector, gravitational force fields and radial distance. This is extremely helpful in studying the heavens and the determination of Doppler and Gravitational shifts.
1.12 Conclusions
Agreement about the conclusions presented here are contingent on the acceptance of the energy equation derived and justified in the article A New Vision. Our energy equation was developed from the intrinsic properties of the atom extending quantum physics. It has the potential of unifying all forces. At the atomic level the energy equation is considered as an energy equation of state which coexists with the wave equation and quantum numbers.
In dealing with energy of the atom in the macroscopic world the external fields add or subtract like vectors with those intrinsic fields produced in the atom and have a profound effect on its energy states. When considering energy states and characteristics of energy states, the energy equation can be applied universally to radiations and their frequencies.
The new concept has been derived with its roots at the atomic level:
E = h eB/G (1).
The beauty of this equation in terms of fields allows like fields of the
media to add with it and allows it to be applied universally.
Because of the new concept, equation (1), it becomes worthwhile to reevaluate probable states for an electron in the atom because it too has all the characteristics of an isolated energy state. Quantum physics suggest a most probable configuration for the atom. However, phase conditions for an electron treated as a wave suggest causality because R (distance of the electron to the nucleus and between shells) is not a probable condition. Spectral frequencies are characteristic of atoms and they define the atom. They are fixed and therefore the R-values must be fixed. Energy states of electrons plus the exclusion principle are not threatened by this conclusion.
These new concepts are a new challenge for the scientific community. New concepts represent progression and are the result of the questioning minds of scientists in our present day. Politics, intellectual comfort zones, and complacency (we have arrived, don't question anything) stifle creativity and new beginnings. May we as scientists keep an open mind and always embrace new frontiers.
Gravitation
E = h/2p
[{e}/{G
}]B = (h/2p) eB/G
G
= (h/2p)S/E,
S º eB
Time variation of gravity
dG/dt = h/2p
[dG/dS
(dS/dt)
+ dG/dE
(dE/dt)]
dG/dt = h/2p
[dG/dE
(dE/dt)]
R-values defined
E = dE = hfspectral = heB/G2
- heB/G1
Where:
G1 = me/R12 and G2
= me/R22