The first half of this paper is devoted to review of the
Special Relativity Theory (SRT) and General Relativity Theory (GRT) and how
they differ from Newton’s
works. They are compared with Newton’s
works because of our proven space program which uses and confirms his
works. Einstein’s works revert back to Newton’s
laws for the cases dealing with some transition speed less than the SOL, but
his works profoundly change representation of time and distance measurements
and his gravity from action at a distance (Gravitational Force Field [GFF]) to
a field. It is difficult to understand
how Einstein’s works can question the quantitative terms (Newton’s)
that have been empirically deduced through our space program. The second part of the paper introduces and
develops a new energy concept.
Repetition is the best way to learn and much repetition is
needed when dealing with the abstract thought process involved with the SRT and
GRT. The object of this article is to
challenge the reader about the SOL. Is
it a universal constant (a tenet of the SRT) or not? It is definitely a constant value but does
its constant value change from medium to medium, in which, it is
traveling? If it is considered a
universal constant then its value is the same for all media of travel.
It is common knowledge that light travels at different
speeds in different materials and is wavelength sensitive. It is dispersive in nature. The reader will be introduced to a new
concept that suggests that the SOL is an inverse function of the Gravitational
Force Field (GFF) in both the macroscopic world as well as the microscopic
atomic and molecular world. The new
concept is an energy equation that has been derived from an atomic concept. From the new concept, the SOL is mathematically
derived as a variable.
E = mc2, time is relative; distance is
relative; what does this all mean? These are all terms that relate directly to
Einstein's SRT. For the average person
and/or scientist to understand the works of Einstein is a task. There are a lot of standard semantics
shrouded in mysteries, which can be deciphered in various ways. Research continues today to prove or disprove
some of Einstein's work.
It is important to make a statement about his famous
equation (E = mc2) from the beginning. It is valid and had been derived from the
established fact of physics that e/m (e = electronic charge, m = mass of
electron) is a function of speed (v).
This change is attributed to the mass (m). The e/m measurement is considered as a root
of E = mc2 (see Note following).
It can be demonstrated that Newton’s
laws and mass varying with speed were used by Einstein to develop his famous
equation.
Most of Einstein's works and contributions have proven
themselves. His contributions to Quantum
Physics are beyond reproach. He won his
Nobel Prize for explaining the photo electric-effect. His greatest contribution has authored
Nuclear energy as we know it. His
questioning mind is beyond reproach. The
following note helps understand the derivation of his famous equation
Note
The famous equation E = mc2 (E is energy, m is a
change in mass, and c is the SOL) is not being questioned. It can be derived by treatment of Newton’s
second law F = d(mv)/dt and the acceleration of a particle. The force (F) on a particle being accelerated
from rest in a constant electric field (ε one dimensional an in positive x
direction) is εe. The dependence of
mass on velocity has been experimentally derived as,
m = m0/(1 - v2/c2)1/2
And by substitution: F
= εe = d(mv)/dt = m = m0 dv/dt /(1 - v2/c2)1/2
Reference 1, section 1-8, page 15 "Mass-Energy Relation" gives a full treatment for
developing E = mc2 from the above substitution (see also explanation
in the Prologue of this WEB site). It
also shows how it reverts back to Newton's
equation for v2/c2 << 1.
His famous equation and its derivation is not contingent
on the SOL being a universal constant as he postulated. Einstein's relativity work is an attempt to
extend and combine the work of Newton
and Maxwell. This paper reviews in a
cursory fashion the works of Newton,
Maxwell, and Einstein. Newton's
works were 200 years old and Maxwell works were approximately 40 years old when
Einstein began the development of his work.
The history can explain the motives leading to the theories of relativity.
The ideas presented in this paper are not new. They are presented in a way that hopefully
appeals to all. Many common sense
examples are used to show how the SRT seems to deny the objective real world of
measurements. Because of this denial,
conclusions are reached that do not agree with common sense. And adding to the problem, much of the
literature in dealing with relativity theory is stereotyped. There are key phrases and semantics that have
a tendency to keep everything mysterious.
This paper is an attempt to remove some of the mystery and the barriers
that stand in the way of understanding.
The GRT leans heavily on time and distance concepts
(dilation and contraction) of the SRT.
If the SRT is valid then time and distance are non-linear and the
Cartesian coordinate system is no longer graphically representative. A new coordinate system that is curved is
necessary and is the basis for Einstein's 75 mathematical (Riemanian geometry)
formulas. The necessity for the GRT is
addressed in Section 10 following a full explanation of the SRT. It is hoped that the treatment of the SRT
gives the reader enough background and good a grasp to decide about the
credence of the GRT.
What are the tenets of the SRT and what makes them
challenging and intellectually curious?
There are two: the first presents
no problems and says that there is no such thing as absolute rest (the
Principle of Relativity which was introduced by Newton). The second postulated by Einstein says that the
SOL is a universal constant and relative to nothing (an initial condition). Before anyone can understand the
ramifications of this second statement, it is necessary to understand what
relative speed is or is not. It is
necessary to understand measurements of time and distance and how they apply to
the works of Newton, Maxwell, and
Einstein.
The second tenet of the SRT also dictates measurements
(for time and distance) that are subjective and appear to lead to a subjective
unreal world. The concepts of relative
speed are said not to apply when measuring the SOL. The works of Newton,
Maxwell, and Einstein address the situation.
1.
Newton's
works disagree with the SRT.
2.
Maxwell's works state that the SOL is a constant and
show how it varies.
3.
Einstein’s postulated that the SOL is a universal
constant (because an experiment investigating a reference datum for the SOL had
failed, but there had been no data backing his postulate). It is inconsequential whether his postulate
came before or after the Michelson/Morley experiment. It did add credence to what he had postulated.
The scientific world has formed opinions and in some cases
formulated a solution with key words to discourage any questioning of the
theories of relativity. Much of the
literature addresses Einstein’s theories as gospel, implying that they cannot
be challenged. If the reader enjoys an
intellectual comfort zone about Einstein’s theories, skip reading this paper
because it is going to challenge one of the tenets of the SRT. The key postulate of the SRT stated by
Einstein is: The SOL is a universal
constant. And because of this
statement, time and distance measurements in the real world are
challenged. A methodical principle of
transformation and permutation must be given for time and distance because the
mathematical physical knowledge of nature and its presentation as a true
reality are denied by the SRT.
The scientific community has undertaken great efforts to
obtain certitude, consistency, and accuracy for its measurements. In fact, there is a science called metrology
that deals with this problem. Standards
are set up and maintained very carefully and this constitutes the objective
real world of measurement, as we know it.
This paper addresses measurements. All measurements are referenced to standards defined
by the scientific community and these standards include time and distance. In comparing any reference systems of
measurement, a distinction between physical determinations and judgments must
be made. The time and distance
definitions (standards) cannot change because they are definitions. They are a reality; they have been
experienced and depended on in the development of the objective real world of
science.
Measurements are as good as the instrument being
used. It is assumed that modern technology
affords precise measurements of time and distance. Time and distance are especially being
addressed because the nature of speed (velocity) is distance divided by time.
The works of Newton
and Maxwell fit into this world of measurement.
There is no problem with measuring changes in velocities or of measuring
a finite fixed velocity of electromagnetic waves. Einstein's works have a problem measuring
time and distance when dealing with electromagnetic waves (SOL).
If the reader enjoys mental challenges in these areas,
continue on. It is strongly suggested
that a review of the SRT and its basic concepts are in order. A thorough understanding of relative speeds
and their relation to the SRT is necessary to better appreciate how they are
being questioned.
What is relative speed?
In its simplest form speed is distance traveled divided by time. An everyday life example is the speedometer
of a car which measures number of miles (distance) per hour (time). If someone is traveling on a freeway, other
cars and their relative speeds can be observed.
If a car passes another car, it can be said that it is traveling faster
than the one it passes. And vice versa
the car passed can be said to be moving slower.
These statements are about relative speeds and if one had a stopwatch
one could measure the amount time it took for the autos to pass each
other. These cars passing each other follow
a definite set of laws, which are the work of Newton. i.e.
Assume that you are doing 60 MPH in your car and you pass a car that is
doing 40 MPH and subsequently you pass a car doing 50 MPH (assume identical
cars) and for each incidence you record the amount time to pass. It is found that it takes less time to pass
the former than it does to pass the latter.
It is simple enough and will be reviewed more times in order that the
reader thoroughly familiar with the concept.
Next a big leap to measuring the relative speed of
electromagnetic waves is attempted.
Suppose that there are sophisticated instruments for measuring the speed
of a light burst passing the above autos.
The SOL was investigated and first measured by Maxwell. Imagine a burst of light (like a bullet from
a laser) passing by your auto when you are doing 60 MPH and this same burst of
light passes by an identical auto next to you that is doing 70 MPH. You have a timing device to measure how long
it takes for the burst of light to pass you and likewise the other auto has an
identical timing device for making the same measurement with respect to itself. Since the autos are traveling at different
speeds, one would think that the two times recorded would be different as it
was in our previous experiments involving the cars.
This experiment could actually be performed because there
are sophisticated timing devices that measure with accuracy down to and
approaching zero time. Light speed is a
constant in our gravitational system, but to tag it as a universal constant
(according to Einstein; treated later) makes it relative to nothing. If this is true, then the times measured in
this light burst experiment are equal.
Common sense dictates that the clocks or the dimensions in the two
vehicles are not going to change because of a 10-MPH speed difference. It also
conflicts with Newton’s works and
caused confusion besides not agreeing with common sense.
According to Newton
only changes in speed can be measured unambiguously. As another example, consider two observers
traveling side by side in different vehicles.
One observer is traveling at 10 MPH and the other observer is traveling
at 20 MPH. Both observers look up and
see an airplane flying overhead. The
plan is to measure the ground speed of the plane. Both observers have the same reference point
and identical stopwatches. After observing
the plane and collecting the necessary data they find that their calculated
individual speed of the plane differs by their own ground speeds. Nothing is different about this
straightforward measurement and the results are as expected. Now if either observer notices that the plane
changes speed (either accelerates or decelerates), the change in speed recorded
by both observers is the same independent of their relative speeds. This example has been simple and to the point
to show relative speeds and absolute accelerations. The treatment is hardly comprehensive. The reader can find a comprehensive treatment
in reference 2.
The next question is; how does the electromagnetic
radiation of Maxwell fit into Newton’s
system? What if, in the above
experiment, it was a light beam instead of an airplane? Radiation (light) had been measured
(Maxwell’s work) to have a finite speed and it is a constant speed. But is it a universal constant (an initial
condition) and what is its reference?
More examples about relative speeds are presented when
explaining the SRT. It is hoped that the
reader is becoming familiar with relative speeds. If there is difficulty with this concept,
seek a reference. It is the key to
understanding the SRT.
In an attempt to resolve the SOL controversy for the
scientific world (Maxwell had proven that light is electromagnetic radiation),
scientist hypothesized that the SOL must be measure relative to the medium
through which it propagates. It was
thought that electromagnetic radiation had a media of transmittal (or which to
vibrate) just as sound vibrates in air.
The media was postulated and bore the name ETHER. It was imagined as a
massless, frictionless fluid filling all of space uniformly. It was also reasoned that the surface of the
earth couldn't always be at rest relative to the ETHER because of its travel through space. It was thought that precise measurement of
the SOL relative to the earth’s surface should reveal the velocity of the
earth’s surface relative to the ETHER. The plan was to name the ETHER the reference frame of absolute
rest. To make the measurements, an
experiment was set up by Michelson and Morley.
The experiment was to compare two light beams, one of the beams was a
reference beam and the other beam was sent in a direction that was retarded by
the ETHER enveloping the earth. If the plan worked a phase difference would
be detected when the two beams were compared.
The experiment failed.
What were the consequences of this failed experiment? Scientist wanted a frame of reference for the
SOL so that Maxwell’s works would be compatible with Newton’s
relative speeds and absolute accelerations.
The only way that they do not coexist is if the SOL is universal
constant or an initial condition. Today
there are instruments and experiments that can remove all doubt.
Since the experiment of Michelson-Morley supposedly
failed, the scientific world was back to square one. Einstein attacked the question of a frame of
reference for the SOL. He embarked on a
campaign to explain the failed experiment.
He said that the ETHER did
not exist and hence there was not a frame of absolute rest and he defined
the SOL as a universal constant (relative to nothing or effectively an
initial condition and itself a reference).
The ETHER may or may not
exist and is still being questioned by some scientist. However, it must be understood just what is
meant by, the SOL is a constant but is not a universal constant or an initial
condition. There is a big
difference. One of the most obvious
demonstrations of the SOL changing is in water, where a stick in the water
looks offset because of the SOL difference in air and water. The SOL
in air and in water is different but is constant in their own media. A comprehensive approach to better understand
the SOL in the scientific world today is being presented because upon it
depends an understanding of the SRT.
Light speed presented in Optics changes
whenever a new media of travel is encountered.
In general a train of light waves are partially reflected and they
change direction as they cross the boundary surface or change from one medium
to another medium. The change in
direction is said to be a refracted wave.
Every material has an index of refraction.
The index of refraction of a medium is the
property usually tabulated rather than the SOL (SOL) in the medium. The ratio of the sine of the angle of
incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio of the
velocities in the two media.
It is expressed mathematically by Snell’s
Law.
Snell’s
Law
n
sinα = n’ sinα’
Where α and α’ are the angles
between a light beam and the normal to the interface between the two media of
indices n and n’. The index of
refraction n = c/v where “c” is the
SOL in space and is probably the upper limit for SOL in space 186,000
mi/sec. It is a reference for but there
is nothing magic about it. It is a way
of comparing the speed of electromagnetic radiation. It follows that v/v' = n'/n, where
"v" is velocity of propagation in one medium and "v'"
represents the velocity of propagation in the other medium. In this case "c" represents some
upper limit of the velocity of light (i e the SOL in our atmosphere compared to
the velocity in some substance).
The scientific community is programmed to
think of "c" as the SOL in space and as a "universal
constant" that applies wherever it is measured. The SOL of space is an upper limit and it is
a constant for that medium as determined by Maxwell. Constant values for the SOL change contingent
on the medium (e.g. SOL in water compared to SOL in our atmosphere etc., etc.).
The constant speed of electromagnetic waves
is derived from Maxwell’s equations for speed in a vacuum. The constant “c” is the ratio of unit size
between electrostatic and electromagnetic systems and is a universal
truth. While it cannot be denied that
“c” is a universal truth, it does not make the SOL a universal constant in all
media of travel. The speed of electromagnetic
waves in space is a constant and in the same manner, the waves are a constant
of a different value in other media.
This speed is not defined as a universal constant for all media of
transmittal but varies according to electric permittivity and magnetic
permeability and is incorporated in the laws of optics.
According to Optics, SOL also changes
whenever a new media of travel is encountered by the wave. Trains of light waves are partially reflected
and change direction as they cross the boundary surface (one medium to
another). The change in direction is
defined as a refracted wave. In addition,
we have seen that Snell’s law expresses it mathematically. It is important because it points out another
variable for the SOL that was unknown when there was controversy about a
reference for it.
Maxwell’s works, equations, electromagnetic
waves and speed of the waves were all a precursor to Optics. The governing definitions and laws of Optics
had not yet been formulated. There were
many contemporary scientists who had an understanding of optics and light and
who attempted to measure its characteristics but they had enough to do in understanding
Maxwell’s works. The same can be said
about Einstein postulating SOL as a universal constant and putting restrictions
on time and distance.
It is an established fact that the SOL in a
material substance depends on wavelength and hence its index of refraction is
also a function of wavelength.
"v" varies according to f x l or
velocity equals frequency times wavelength.
For a medium change frequencies do not change. Therefore the wavelength must change. And any substance that offers resistance to
SOL displays dispersive properties for light with an index of refraction that
is a function of wavelength. A prism separates
white light into its components of red through violet. Deviation of a prism increases with
increasing index of refraction and the index of refraction is a function of
wavelength. Thus violet is deviated the
most and red least. The SOL in water is
1/4 of that in our atmosphere giving an offset to objects in water because
wavelength is 1/4 of that in the atmosphere (For further explanation the reader
is referred to any physics book on Optics that deals with reflection and refraction
of light waves).
The frequencies of light we observe, whether
in a vacuum or other medium, are functions of velocity and wavelength, v = fl. It is not a simple function of E = hf. All media that allow the transmittal of light
or electromagnetic radiation are dispersive in nature. The SOL in all substances depends on
wavelength and all media offer some resistance to flow or transmittal of electromagnetic
radiation. All media have a dielectric
constant and a magnetic permeability, which cause the SOL to change. Besides working out a constant for the speed
of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell recognized the speed dependence on the
electric and magnetic properties of the media.
He incorporated and explanation for them in his work. These properties (dielectric constant) and
(magnetic permeability) cannot be divorced from wavelength changes because of
the resistance they offer to flow. They
are intrinsic to electric fields and magnetic fields, respectively. They are an integral part of the wave
equation derived from Maxwell’s equations.
Relationships are presented as a matter of
review and are very much part of electromagnetic radiation and its
variation.
c (vacuum) = 1/square
root ofÎ0m0, Î0
is the dielectric constant (space)
m0
is the magnetic permeability (space)
Zintrinsic = square root of m/Î, 377 ohms for free space
c/v = square root of Îm/Î0m0, Where
v represents the speed
of
radiation in different media
These relationships assume "c" is a
universal constant with all values for the variation of light speed referenced
to it. In various media, the wavelength,
frequency, and radiation speed will differ according to the variations
predicted by these equations. These
considerations show that the SOL varies and a conversion exists for all media
of travel. And from optics, it can be
stated that SOL is a function of the media (can be space, water, various glass
types, planets stars, etc.) in which it travels. Light can also be resolved, dispersed and
undergo interference which constitutes SOL variation. .The variation of the speed is characterized
and dependent on the index of refraction of the media.
7. Historical
Developments
In studying or obtaining information, what happens when
credibility breaks down? What happens,
when it becomes apparent that what is understood does not agree with common
sense? Eventually there is a break
through or new information and a new clarity come about.
Physics in its study of matter and energy is related to
physical reality and is defined for real events, entities, or state of
affairs. It is the totality of real
things. In the physics world, man has
discovered and pronounced theories that are normally backed with empirical data
in the macroscopic world. Many theories
are pronounced after the fact because some phenomenon has been detected that is
new and is awaiting an explanation. Some
of the theories of quantum physics were the direct result of phenomena that
could not be explained by classical physics (work prior to 1900).
Newton gave
the word "force" a precise meaning, and above all, made it the cause
of motion. It became the cause of all
change in the universe. Force is an abstract
term but it can be felt just as we can feel matter. Newton's
forces were coupled to atoms and molecules and as a result are involved in
mechanization as well as man's efficient use of his muscles.
Prior to Newton's
work, motion of planets, heavenly bodies, etc. could not be predicted. Newton's
laws triumphed because of their usefulness.
Science was finally explained in precise mathematical terms and is in
use today. Science no longer could
intimidate man; man was no longer on the bottom rung. Through Newton's
works, man had finally accomplished explanations that were previously explained
by Astrology and the occult.
Newton
expressed his laws in quantitative terms.
His math was able to forecast what would work and what would not and
could be verified or falsified. His laws
were empirically deduced and continue today in our space program. His single most deductive discovery was his
law of gravitational attraction. He made
no assumptions about the cause of gravitational attraction and he did not
speculate about what was happening between the attracting bodies.
The Quantum Physics married the wave and particle theories
(ref. 1). Particle physics was
considered because it was found that Newton’s
laws no longer held in the microscopic world.
His second law, F = ma was replaced with the Shroedinger wave equation
at the atomic level. A wave equation was
necessary because it was found that atomic particles reacted with
electromagnetic waves. Other
developments leading to this included the quantizing of energy by Planck to
explain the inconsistency of radiation vs. frequency. Einstein used Planck’s quantum (E = hf) idea
as an explanation, with some modification, for the photoelectric effect.
Our space program uses and confirms laws of Newton. Even though the gravity value for each planet
is different, the value in each case is derived from the same set of universal
laws (Newton’s) and is measured in
the same manner. Mathematically, Gravity
is the second derivative of distance with respect to time (where: D = 16T2).
Maxwell’s equations are a work of art and are the
cornerstone of electrodynamics. The
development led to the measurement of the finite SOL, radiation, radio waves,
etc. The big question and controversy
among the scientist of this time was, does this finite speed of the radiation
have a reference?
Einstein's presentation was also bolstered by mathematics
but was quite a contrast to Newton
and Maxwell's work. Newton's
works could be expressed in words and demonstrated graphically and his theory
of gravitation was confirmed with reams of astronomical observations and
experiments. Einstein's works were words
and math formulae (75 to be exact). Most
of the text was to explain the mathematics.
Einstein's papers expressed little practical utility but they did agree
with most of Newton's work.
Newton’s
system dealt with changes in velocity and Maxwell’s system dealt with constant
velocity. Newton
and Maxwell’s works are based on mathematical physical knowledge of nature and
their presentations are true realities in the objective physical world. Einstein attempted to fit these systems
together because he felt that they were incompatible and could not
coexist. His work preempted the real
world of measurement by making time and distance subjective to the system in
which they are measured.
There have been some theories presented by guess and
conjecture because of previous studies.
The scientist took the challenge to hunt and to prove these theories. Many of the planets were predicted before
they were discovered. The transistor was
made a reality after all the theoretical groundwork was laid. All of Quantum Physics was developed and
created through a series of experiments and a collection of data (ref.1). Measurements and data that agreed with common
sense in the objective real world backed these discoveries. Einstein's work and his attempt to extend Newton's
work did not. If it is shown that Einstein's
postulate is not true then the SRT’s time and distance (contraction or expansion)
losses its power. It then turns out that
all the mental gymnastics associated with the SRT is just a precursor to a new
development. However whatever the new
development might deny has to be preempted by that which takes its place.
As background information it can be said that the SRT
deals with something that is relative to nothing. What does this mean? The consequences of these concepts are many
and will be pursued further. The SRT
postulates that every observer must perform his own measurements in his own
frame of reference; his house, his planet, or his galaxy. There is no such thing as absolute rest
(today it is possible to create a point of absolute rest with respect to the
earth via a synchronous satellite). It
is further stated that the common ground of measurements is that everyone
everywhere, regardless of his state of motion will obtain the same answer if he
attempts to measure the SOL.
Relative speeds in Newton’s
system were acceptable and in Einstein’s work they were questionable and
dependent. If the reader is unfamiliar
with what relative speed means, he is urged to become very familiar with Newton’s
works and relative speeds (see reference 3).
A good grasp on these concepts is essential. The reader is referred back to Section four
of this paper.
A review of relative speeds is revisited here with two
more examples. First think of a man
shooting a gun while positioned on a moving train. Newton’s
law can show that if a man shoots at a target that the train is approaching,
the velocity of the bullets is increased by an amount equal to the velocity of
the train. Next, consider a gun being
shot at a stationary target from a stationary platform and then the same target
being shot at from a platform that is moving toward the target. Which bullet will reach the target first?
FIGURE 1
The second example is of two identical space ships (same
dimensions) traveling in space (Figure 1).
The velocity of space ship #1 is greater than the velocity of space ship
#2 and these velocities are uniform and less than the SOL. Consider an instant in time when ship #1 is
just overtaking ship #2 as depicted in Figure 1. The two ships are identical and have
identical equipment for measuring the SOL.
Just at the instant the ships are lined up, a burst of light enters the
ships in a direction of their velocities.
The plan is to measure the amount of time it takes for the light to
traverse L1 and L2 respectively.
Both ships contain a ruler and a timing device. Before leaving earth, the rulers on space
ship #1 and space ship #2 calibrated with the same dimensions and the timing
devices were synchronous and kept time in the same way. Think of the ships as targets moving away
from a light source here on earth. The
light sources are fixed and synchronous and their bursts of light arrive at
point A just as ship #1 is overtaking ship #2.
From our previous example of bullets on the train and
those presented in Section 3, one would suspicion that the amount of time for
the burst of light to traverse space ship #1 should take longer than for the
burst of light to traverse the same distance in space ship #2. The light burst entered each ship at the same
time and ship #1 is moving away from light burst faster than ship #2. As an analog, the bullets can be considered
as the burst of light and the space ships are the targets moving away from the
light burst. No matter what the speed of
the light is, it seems that the answers we receive for the speed of the light
burst must be different by an amount determined by the relative speeds of the
two space ships.
No! According to
the SRT, the answers that must be obtained are equal because the SOL is
relative to nothing. How can we obtain
the same answer for the given conditions of the two ships moving at different
speeds? Obviously the SOL is a constant
and equal in this particular measurement system. The measurements that have been made must
show a difference of the relative speeds of the two ships according to Newton’s
work. If the above answers are equal, it
is necessary that physical attributes of the timing device, the length
measuring device or dimensions of one of the space ships have to change. If it is assumed that the dimensions of
distance and time have been scaled or changed in space ship #1, we have entered
an unreal world of objectivity where the time measuring devices, distance
measuring device and/or the dimensions of the system, in which they are measured
must change. If this is true, a system
of standards for each system must be defined.
The above concepts do not prove that time and distance
have changed as defined by the scientific community (their standards). Maybe the measuring devices or the dimensions
of the system change (still not proven).
We have already considered that great care was used in setting a
measuring system that is always certain, consistent and repeatable. If it is assumed that the tenet (SOL a
universal constant), the intellect dictates that the mathematics are not right
(time and distance must change or the dimensions of the system must change to
ensure that the postulate holds).
What does it all mean (I believe it was mathematical and
intellectual necessity)? These new
abstract thoughts have changed our previously gained knowledge of
experience. A new conceptual language is
expressed that enters another system of meaning. The new system of meaning presents the
subjectiveness of time and distance on the speed of the reference system. Time and distance have been taken from the
physical world and put in the world of mathematics and appeals to intellectual
necessity rather than changes in the real world and common sense. Time definition and length definition are
standards that do not change.
The tenets of the SRT set up an intellectual demand for a
new coordinate system that will incorporate the subjectivness of time and
distance changes. If time and distance
are questionable, it can be stated that Euclid’s
geometry and that coordinate system are in trouble.
TENET #1: There is
no such thing as absolute rest. It says
that all inertial frames of reference are treated equally. It is interesting to note that today a
synchronous satellite can be positioned that is at absolute rest with respect
to some point on the earth. It can be
held precisely to a fixed position electronically. The SOL can be measured at a fixed point on
earth from the synchronous satellite and compared with the same measurement
made from a moving satellite (Remember in the Michelson/Morley experiment a
point of absolute rest for measuring the SOL was being sought. The experiment failed. It is inconsequential whether Einstein postulate
came before or after the failed experiment. The experiment lent credence to his postulate that
SOL was a universal constant).
TENET #2: The SOL
is a constant (universal) and relative to nothing. It is not the purpose of this paper to design
the experiments for these measurements from absolute rest with those that are
moving. Technology has all the tools for
obtaining the necessary data to disprove this tenet. The article on this site “Speed of Light”
offers a suggestion for measuring SOL.
Is it possible to escape from this unreal, non-absolute
world of measurement back into the real world of objective measurements? It is important that it be accomplished
without denying any of the proven work of physics. In order to be progressive, any new concepts
must extend our knowledge and understanding of the subject matter. Following the consideration of the GRT in section
10, a new frontier is presented, in which, an attempt is being made to put all
measurements back in agreement with common sense.
An opposite viewpoint could have been taken. The SOL is relative and is not an initial
condition and that Newton’s works
and Maxwell’s equations hold in their entirety.
E = mc2 and does not depend upon the characteristics of the
universal constancy of the SOL and the GRT must be reconsidered. This is a drastic change and challenges the
intellectual comfort zones of some people.
Please read on and see if you like a General
Theory of Relativity (GRT)
One purpose of the GRT leans heavily on the SRT for its
justification. Einstein also understood
that the SRT left questions unanswered and he covered his tracks by postulating
his GRT. It attempted to explain away
those characteristics created by his SRT that encountered difficulty fitting
into the real world. It is curious that in
all the literature, any problem dealing with the GRT relates to the tenets for
the SRT.
New developments and the discovery that the tenets of the
SRT are not cast in cement indicate the possibility that the general theory
must be changed or replaced. It does not
change questions raised by the theories.
This paper is not attempting to shoot down Einstein's works. It is meant to trace, in a logical and
historical manner, the thought processes to better understand how the theories
fit in the real world today. In this
process questions have been raised.
According to the literature, the acceptance of the GRT is
a new coordinate system that is curved with a fourth dimension of time. This coordinate system is the direct result
of an intellectual necessity brought about by the SRT (non linear distance and
time). Measurements of space and time no
longer agreed with common sense and they required change. The tenets of the special theory are here
being questioned and denied in order to release a subjective space and time.
Another purpose for the GRT was to eliminate the need for
Newtonian action a distance required for Newton’s
law of gravity. Einstein’s gravity was
based on field contact action. Particles
of matter were supposed to be guided by contact with curve space instead of being
attracted by distant bodies (Newton). Inertial and gravitational systems were equal
and are known and explained as the Principle of Equivalence (Field Contact
Action). In this system, somebody
standing on a balance in a windowless enclosure is unable to tell with
certainty that the weight measured on the scale of balance, is caused by the
attraction of the earth, or is and inertial force due to upward acceleration in
weightless space. In this system gravity
is not spared. It too becomes
relative. In Newton’s
world, gravity and inertia are separate entities. Inertia is the resistance to a change in
force in the gravity force field.
Field contact action, according to Einstein’s gravity, cannot
produce simultaneity as in Newton’s
work because of the finite time required for changes to be recorded. The field lines are the media of transmittal
for the force field and with a media of transmittal nothing can happen in zero
time. In the far action system of Newton
a media of travel is not necessary allowing simultaneity of actions and
reactions. Mutual interaction between
the bodies (sun, planets, particles etc.) does exist.
Einstein’s world is somewhat like induction in an electric
circuit. Current in one element causes
an effect (voltage) in another element and a finite time is required. With Newton’s
gravity all elements equally contribute to the field of force. There is normally one key element of matter
(in our solar system it is the sun).
However, it is multiple actions between all elements of matter in the
force field. Interaction and the
recipient of its effect are felt by all elements at once. A sudden change in one is instantly felt by
the force field and affects all. It is
an energy force field that can only be changed by an addition of another
body. In Einstein’s system the addition
of another body simply changes field lines of the system and changes how bodies
can travel. These changes require a
finite time barring simultaneity.
Einstein predicted that light beams are bent and he
suggested an experiment, which was carried out.
The light beams do actually bend (which denies his postulate that the SOL
is a universal constant because if light can change speed and doesn’t travel in
a straight line then it has a component of acceleration).
If it is assumed that the tenet (“c” a universal
constant), the intellect dictates that the mathematics are not right (time and
distance must change or the dimensions of the system must change to ensure that
Einstein’s postulate holds).
If “c” = ds/dt = a
constant
Then d2s/dt2
= 0 = acceleration of light
but light is known
to bend under certain circumstances
therefore it has a
component of acceleration
What does it all mean?
It is a mathematical and intellectual necessity. The SRT necessitates new abstract thoughts
that want to change our previously gained knowledge of experience.
When light waves
pass from medium to medium, they change speed and direction and bend sharply as
anyone can see by observing a stick or an object in water. A much smaller effect is observed as function
of gravity force fields when light travels in space. It is assumed that the media near the sun is
much different (somewhat rarefied) compared to other parts of space (simple
optics explains this). The sun is
mentioned, because the experiment involved light from a star bending, contingent
on the proximity of its path with respect to the sun. Fermat’s law predicts that light takes the
path (affected by its media) that requires the least amount of time.
Subsequently, Light vs.Gravity will be treated and related
to a new concept. The bending of light,
besides being a function of the media it travels in, is also an inverse
function of Gravitational Force Field (GFF).
In lieu of the demands for a new coordinate system (Einstein’s world),
it is suggested that the scientific community investigate again the tenets of
SRT. It is hoped that the reader is
becoming convinced that the SOL is a constant in different gravitational
systems but it is not a universal constant (an initial condition).
Gravitational red shifts verify and exploit the same
causes for the bending of starlight.
Shifts of wavelengths in materials coming from the sun are compared with
shifts of wavelengths of the same material here on earth. Can it also be said that ruler’s contract and
clocks run more slowly because the SOL is universal constant? This particular aspect has already been
treated in the example of measuring the SOL for the space ships.
In 1958 black holes were postulated and offered as another
proof of GRT. It is believed that a
black hole is a collapsed star that possesses so much gravity that light cannot
pass through it. In the development to
follow, energy and SOL will be shown to be an inverse function of Newton’s
gravity, which produces the same results because anything divided by infinity
is zero. Demands for complex
explanations can be displaced and replaced leaving the scientific community
with a better look at ordinary realities.
The explanation of the perihelion of Mercury’s orbit has
to do with a space-time continuum that is convenient and in the vicinity of the
sun. The new coordinate system demanded
by the special theory is used to explain it.
The “curved space-time” invention is totally unnecessary for this
deflection and can be handled with algebra and integrals. It is believed that a man named Gerber first
derived the mathematical treatment of the orbit without using relativity (but
did assume that gravity travels at the SOL see NOTE). Tensors and Riemannian geometry were not needed.
Note
According to Newton's
works, gravity is a far action force and is not connected by field lines. Simultaneity and instant reaction can and do
take place. All the bodies (masses) are
in one force field and all contribute to the force field at one and the same
time. As an example, all of the planets
traveling around the sun directly affect all other planets and the sun because
they are all in the same force field and contribute to it. If one planet could change orbits it would
change the whole gravity force field instantaneously.
In contrast to gravity (action at a distance) are fields introduced
by Maxwell. Electric field lines and
magnetic field lines do not allow instantaneous reaction. Electrons moving require a finite time and
magnetism is the direct result of this moving charge.
Far action force and fields are used interchangeably throughout
the literature for particular situations.
What has developed is a theory (general), which is
contingent on and at the same time meant to explain away the anomalies of
another theory (special). It appears
that no matter what the problem that GRT attempts to solve; it is the direct
result of the postulates governing the SRT.
The GRT reintroduces fields and totally disagrees with Newton's
far action. We have the case of the dog
chasing his tail. There has been an experiment
in the works for years (The "B" Probe to prove the GRT) that has
never left the ground. I am sure that
much knowledge has been attained through this study but it appears that it is
time to question what we are doing.
This article is
devoted to justifying that the SOL can be treated as a common variable. The new concept opens the door to a physics
that keeps time and distance in the objective real world. An energy equation is developed. It is the direct result of an algebraic
manipulation of an atomic level concept derived from a Bohr magneton energy
state. In the process, it presents
itself as a stepping-stone from that energy state to a universal concept as an
energy transporting entity similar to a photon.
The following Sections are developed to justify "c" as a
variable and to evaluate frequency shifts observed through telescopes.
If the SOL is a
constant for given conditions but not a universal constant or an initial condition,
what are the conditions? It is known
that light bends due to gravity so it must have a component of
acceleration. It is also known that the SOL
changes in different media and materials where it is normally slower than in a
vacuum. The speed for the different
media can be related through Snell’s law.
The speed (c) is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength (l) of light by f = c/l. Actually there is nothing sacred about light
having a variation of speed. What would
really be nice is to find some thing that is common to all of its
conditions. A new concept is introduced
that gives the common thread to a variable SOL, frequency shifts, gravity and
energy. A conclusion is here stated
followed by all necessary proofs. It is
an ad hoc approach to prove that SOL is a variable.
c = Sl/2πG (1)
For any change in
"c" there is a variation in l/G. According to Newton, the
constant value of G varies for each moon, planet, star etc. and l varies accordingly.
Equation (1) is derived from a new energy concept derived in the article
“Absolute Time and Distance” on this WEB site.
Remember G is Newton’s gravity.
The new energy equation: E = heB/G
Variation of “c”
according to (1) above is similar to light changing media where the speed
changes but frequency remains constant (prism).
G constitutes the medium change in this case. This variable “c” value can be related to all
other variables according to Maxwell’s definitions.
When there is
disagreement about a scientific concept (SOL as a universal constant is being
denied), it is best to offer another concept that extends or preempts it. Standard procedure is to replace the
negative with a positive and to expose it to the scientific community for the
test. In this manner, new concepts
sometimes expand existing science.
A development and
derivation of an energy equation using two different approaches that has
identical results shall follow. The
development is necessary to prove a final outcome about the SOL. It generalizes it and suggests that it is
universal fact. The conclusion is here
stated followed by the necessary proof.
|
The energy
equation: E = heB/G
|
Before deriving
the equation, consider some of its characteristics as it stands:
1.
It is an energy state equation that contains eB (Poynting vector for energy at a point; this is a
Maxwell connection),
2.
It is also a wave at some frequency and is singled
valued like the photon.
3.
G is the gravitational force field (this is a Newton connection).
4.
h (Planck’s constant) showing that it has a touch of
Quantum physics.
The new equation
is developed from a single energy state (accepted in the literature) and has a
quasi classical/quantum approach.
Highlights of these two concepts that are pertinent to the development
are set forth. It shows purpose and
expands on known concepts, removes some of the mystery, and makes the concepts
more useful.
The new energy
equation is valid and was initially derived in the article “Absolute Time and
Distance” on this WEB site. It shall be
repeated here as a matter of convenience.
It was derived from an energy state of atomic physics and applied universally. There are electric fields, magnetic vector
potentials and gravitational force fields implicit at the atomic level and can
add to like fields of the media, in which they exist. Media (space, earth, planets, stars etc.)
that have these same force fields (e, B,
and G) combine their effects by adding or subtracting as vectors. This is a
common thread and has been demonstrated allowing the energy equation to be
applied universally.
1.
The SOL is directly related to energy and therefore
varies. The energy equation can be
equated to E = hf, the SOL is dependent on electric field, magnetic field
and/or combination (eB
electromagnetic radiation [light] of the two in the form of a Poynting vector,
and Gravity force field).
2.
The SOL is zero for infinite gravity (black holes)
which is in agreement with the new energy equation because it will be shown
that c = eBl/G.
3.
The energy observed through the telescopes that we use
for studying the heavens is affected because the frequencies observed is the
direct result of the atom of the materials being observed.
4.
Frequency shifts observed have been thought by some
scientist to be Doppler shifts and by others to be Gravity (red) shifts. The new energy equation is subsequently
developed to show that shifts are due a combination of the two.
Number one above
has the most impact because it questions the constancy of the SOL regardless of
environment (it questions the universality of the SOL). Number two presents nothing new except that
the new equation agrees with black hole theory.
Number three will be thoroughly examined. The conclusions address the scientific world
of differences. Many scientists believe
that frequency shifts observed in the heavens are due to Doppler shifts and
many believe they are due to Gravity shifts.
The new energy equation presented here is used to show that frequency
shifts are due to both.
The energy
equation derived and developed here connects and advances Quantum Mechanics
(because it derived from a concept there).
It has the potential of reaching out into space. It is an extension of concepts already known
and adds the dimension of a force field and its affect on observed spectral
frequencies of the heavens as well as the speed of electromagnetic radiation
(light). The force field equation is the
direct result of an algebraic manipulation of an atomic level concept derived
from a Bohr Magneton energy state. In
the process, it presents itself as a stepping-stone from that energy state to a
universal concept as an energy transporting entity similar to a photon.
It is necessary
to consider the following review as a precursor to a new energy equation. Its result is necessary as a comparison and
proof for that equation.
There are
magnetic moments M associated with an electron moving in an atom that are
proportional to both the orbital and spin angular momenta for an electron in a
particular shell. They are isolated
energy states and are expressed in terms of the Bohr Magnetron. The magnetic moment times the magnetic vector
potential (B field intrinsic or extrinsic to the atom) is an energy term that
relates to energy changes at the atomic level.
|
Bohr Magnetron
M = he/m
|
|
Where: h is
Planck's constant divided by 2p, e
is electronic charge, and m is electron mass.
|
|
And Energy E =
MB = he/m B (1)
|
An electron wave
can be thought of as an isolated energy state that is capable of moving (or
positioning itself) in a shell about the atom.
The following is meant as review to demonstrate electron wave movement.
|
Equation (1)
can also be expressed as: E = he2pR2f/mc (2)
|
|
because
intrinsic B = pR2ef/c
= iA, c is SOL
|
|
(by definition
this is the electron movement in an orbit about the nucleus)
|
|
Where: i is current due to the electron moving
around the nucleus, A is the area of the orbit, and f = w/2p, w is due to a combination
of spin and angular frequency of rotation.
|
|
Differentiating
(2) with respect to R, dE/dR = 2he2pfR/mc
|
|
dE/dR = e2wRl, where l
= h/mc (3)
|
|
2pR = nl, where n = 1, 2, 3, etc.
|
Remember equation
3 result because it will be referenced in Section 4 following.
This is the
starting point for the derivation of an energy equation dependent on electric
field intensity, magnetic vector potential and gravitational force field. In the explanation to follow, the new concept
developed extends the physics world as it is known today because it combines
effects of electric, magnetic and gravity.
The author first derived this equation in 1969 while working on a
project of applied atomic physics.
Equation (1) of section
13 is an isolated energy state. In all
cases of dealing with energy properties of an electron, isolated energy states
are a beginning point. Exploring this beginning
and dividing the numerator and denominator of the above equation by 1/R2,
the following is obtained.
|
E = he/R2
divided by m/R2 times B (1),
R is the radial
distance of the electron to the nucleus.
|
|
e/R2
= e-electric field, m/R2
= G (definition), and B is magnetic vector potential
|
|
Equation (1)
transforms to the energy equation, it is an isolated energy state.
|
|
E = h eB/G new energy equation of state (2)
|
|
It combines
electric field, magnetic vector potential and Gravitational Force Field (GFF)
in a unified energy equation.
|
Does this new
equation agree with previous knowledge of particulate isolated energy states of
an electron?
Consider equation
(2) and differentiate it with respect to R.
If it has truly not changed anything, the result will be the same as
equation (3) of Section 13.
|
dE/dR = dE/de de/dR + dE/dB dB/dR + dE/dG dG/dR
|
|
Solving from
(2) above: (a) dE/de = hB/G, (b) dE/dB = he/G, (c) dE/dG = -heB/G2
|
|
Solving
continued: (d) de/dR = -2e/R3
(e) dB/dR = 2PRef/c, (f) dG/dR = -2m/R3
|
|
Combining (a)
through (f): dE/dR = h [B/G (-2e/R3)
+ e/G (2PRef/c) + -eB/G2 (2m/R3)]
|
|
B/G = pR4ef/mc, e/G = e/m, eB/G2 = pR4e2f/m2c
|
|
and
substituting, dE/dR = h[-2pRfe2/mc
+ 2pRfe2/mc + 2pRfe2/mc]
|
|
dE/dR = h/mc
times e2Rw = le2Rw
|
Note that the
result of this differentiation is identical to the previously derived dE/dR
(equation 3 of Section 3). The Section 3
approach was straightforward and simple differentiation. The second approach although complex using
partial derivatives was necessary to stress the validity of the energy equation
expressed as a combination of fields and a force field. A quasi-classical/quantum concept for an
isolated energy state has been converted and has incorporated the field equations
of Maxwell and Newton’s law of gravity. The e and
B fields are considered as two aspects of a single phenomenon, an electromagnetic
wave whose source is a moving charge (the electron is in a stable atom). Equation 2 is a new energy concept. The new force field equations in conjunction
with quantum concepts are used to complement energy level changes. Its development and validation have just been
considered.
The sections
following give a full treatment of the energy equation applied to energy situations. The energy equation can be applied
universally because the potentials and fields of an atom add as vectors with
like potentials and fields of the medium in which they are positioned. It opens the door to the concept that the SOL
is directly related to energy and therefore varies.
1.
The energy equation can be equated to E = hf, the SOL
is dependent on electric field, magnetic field, and Gravity force field.
i.
E = h/2 π times S/G where S º eB (Poynting vector) and
ii.
hf = h/2 π times S/G
iii.
f = S/2 π G =
c/l, where "c" is
velocity for some medium and l is
wavelength
Therefore c = Sl/2πG (1)
As stated in Section
11, this is the conclusion for our ad hoc approach. For any change in "c" there is a
variation in l/G. The constant value for G changes for each
moon, planet, star etc. and l
varies accordingly (frequency does not change.
2.
According to equation (1), the SOL is zero for infinite
gravity (black holes).
3.
The energy observed through the telescopes that are use
for studying the heavens is affected because the frequencies observed are the
direct result of the atom of the materials being observed moving toward us or
away from us. In a subsequent development,
the new energy equation shows that observed frequency shifts are due to a combination
of Doppler and Gravity shifts.
Number one above
in conjunction with section 6 has the most impact because it questions the
constancy of the SOL regardless of environment.
The variation in the SOL can be approached in the same
manner as the way the SOL varies between media.
From medium to medium the SOL varies as a function of l
(wavelength), G (gravity force field) varies and since frequency remains constant,
λ varies accordingly. Consider the following for the variables involved.
According to equation c = Sl/2πG
and for any change in
"c" there is a variation in l/G.
The change in "c" is inversely
proportional to the G (GFF) for any planet, moon, star, galaxy, black hole etc.
and λ varies accordingly.
The SOL is a variable and its upper limit is
probably in a vacuum or in space. It is
a function of the properties of our galaxy, solar system and universe. A rejuvenated world of absolute space and
time has now been reintroduced.
SOL for photons: Sl/2πG
where S ≡ eB (Poynting vector),
λ = wavelength of photon and
G = GFF = km/R2 , k is a
constant, m is mass and R is the straight line distance to other objects in the
field.
SOL
for waves can vary according to the optics characteristics and the
calculations of Maxwell. From the above
conclusions, it is difficult to admit to light speed being a universal
constant. It is instructive to pursue
more about conclusion for the SOL for photons.
17. Application/Frequency
Shifts
In developing the
energy equation at the atomic level, definite values for R, f, l etc. were dictated.
In dealing with radiation effects of the atom in the macroscopic world,
the intrinsic properties remain unchanged.
The external fields add or subtract like vectors with those intrinsic
fields produced in the atom and in most cases override them.
This new energy
concept has the capability of presenting energy diagrams for any type of
radiation in terms of the Poynting vector, GFF and radial distance. This is extremely helpful in studying the
heavens and the determination of Doppler and Gravitational (red) shifts.
E = h eB/G can be used as the
starting point to reach into outer space and to look at frequency shifts. The R value in the following equations is the
distance to the radiation source and the radial velocity of the source is the
speed with which it approaches or recedes from a set position (e.g. a fixed
point on earth). As an example consider
stars being observed in space.
Figure 2
|
E
= h/2p [{e}/{G }]B = (h/2p) eB/G (1)
|
|
eB º S the Poynting Vector
|
|
and E
= hf (2)
|
|
Substituting: f
= (1/2p) S/G (3)
|
|
For frequency
shift in the radial direction; differentiate equation 3 with respect to R.
|
|
df/dR =
1/2p [ df/dS (dS/dR) + df/dG (dG/dR) ] (4)
|
Each term in
equation 4 will be treated separately and then substituted and solved. For the first
partial term df/dS, differentiate equation 3 with respect to S.
It is a change in
frequency with respect to S and indicates that it is inversely proportional to
gravity force field.
NOTE
The second term dS/dR = 0
at the atomic level because e and
B change in such a way that their product remains constant and thus S is a
constant.
However,
frequency change with respect to radial distance requires the following considerations
of the atomic source being observed. S
is a radiation energy wave and its energy is proportional to frequency.
|
S = eB = kw, where w = 2pf, f = vradial/R,
and k is a constant
|
|
The positive
crests of e
and B (orthogonal to each other) occur every 2p
radians.
|
|
Therefore: S = kw = k2pf = k2p vradial/R (6)
|
|
The second term for equation 4 is
equation 6 differentiated with respect to R; it becomes:
|
|
dS/dR = -4kp vradial/R2 (7)
|
|
Combining
equations 5 and 7:
|
|
df/dS (dS/dR) = -2kvradial/GR2 (8)
|
Assuming radial
direction, equation 4 is Doppler shift by definition. The third
term is frequency shift due to the gravitational force field. Differentiating the third term of equation 4
with respect to G gives the following results, equation 9.
For the fourth term of equation 4,
differentiate G with respect to R, G = m/R2 because the gravity
force field varies according to the inverse square of the distance from the
earth (observer is assumed on earth).
Below is a review
of common definitions for field intensities in their simplest form because
their effects produce the radiation source.
Remember the sources of radiation are characteristic spectral
frequencies of gaseous elements found in space.
Every elemental atom can be identified by its characteristic
frequency. By measuring variations
(frequency shifts of radiation from stars, galaxies etc), a determination of
radial velocities and distances of these sources can be found.
|
e =
e/R2, B = pR2ef/c
(equation 2, Section 3), G = m/R2, S = eB (Atomic level)
|
|
And solving for S/G2 of
equation 9 = e2fR4/m2c (11)
|
|
Combine
equations 9, 10, and 11
|
|
df/dG (dG/dR) = 3e2/pm (vradial/c) (12)
|
|
Collecting and
combining terms and substituting equations 8 and 12 into equation 4, it
becomes:
|
|
df/dR =
1/2p [-2kvradial/GR2
+ 3e2/pm
(vradial/c)] (13)
|
|
(Change in l)/l = vradial/c º Doppler shift and the vradial/G
term indicates a shift due to GFF
|
According to the
literature frequencies are sometimes attributed to gravity and sometimes
Doppler, this equation indicates a combination of the two.
Implicit in
equation 4 above is the SOL (it contains the Poynting vector derived from
Maxwell’s equations) as well as the radial velocity of the observed. Equation 4 has information and equation 13
above is the finished product that says that frequency change (shift) is the
result of Doppler Effect and GFF as well as its intensity. This Gravity shift is different from the so-called
“Red Shift” talked about in the literature.
“Red Shift” used in that context refers to whether the object is moving
away from the observer. In the development
of equation 4, the Gravity term refers to the value for the gravity of the
object being observed. It has a
personality and glamour all of its own with a novel completeness. This has been an ad hoc approach and presents a challenge to obtain data to verify
or discredit the results.
The science of
Astronomy studies and makes measurements of received radiation from the
heavens. The explicit purpose of the
measurements is to study velocities, distances, and light (radiation)
intensities of heavenly bodies. The
radial velocity of a heavenly body is the speed with which it approaches or
recedes from a set position (e.g. a
fixed point on earth).
It is observed
that the frequency of the wave shifts proportional to its movement in the
heavens. Advanced photography technology
allows science to measure frequency shifts.
The frequency shifts are named Doppler shifts; named after their founder
who first explained them. This paper
investigates spectral frequencies and their associated Doppler shifts. It also derives and presents a new energy
equation that contains Doppler shifts and introduces a new concept for gravity
shifts (Red Shift). Scientists are
undecided about frequency shifts in the heavens. Are these Doppler shifts or gravity
shifts? In the previous section it has
been shown that the shifts are a combination of the two.
A good starting
point asks the question; what do we see when we look into the heavens? We are observing radiation sources in the
visible spectrum that have brightness and frequency associated with them. There are other sources that might be too
distant to be seen or they are in the non-visible part of the spectrum. Other means of observing can be used (e.g. telescopes
or radio frequency receivers). At night
much of the radiation observed is in the visible spectrum. Further investigation indicates that the
sources of radiation are characteristic spectral frequencies of gaseous
elements found in space. Every elemental
atom can be identified by its characteristic frequency. By measuring variations (frequency shifts of
radiation from stars, galaxies etc), a determination of radial velocities and
distances of these sources can be found.
It turns out that
at the root of most of the discoveries in Astronomy as well as in communications
(satellites) are the variation of these frequency measurements. The radial velocity of a star, galaxy, etc.
or a satellite is the speed with which it approaches or recedes from a set
position. It is measured by Doppler
shift of lines of some absorption spectrum (boundary lines separating
frequencies) and can be observed for any entity in the heavens that can be
photographed. The radial motion along
the line of sight is a complicated problem in geometry and must be worked out
(see ref 2, pp. 253-4).
Niels Bohr
presented an atom model with defined orbits for the electrons that were separated
by discrete energy levels called quantum transitions. Bohr first defined the spectral frequencies
and identifying earmarks of material.
His presentation was an ad hoc
approach that predated DeBroglie’s wave-particle works by about ten years.
The object of this paper was to derive and prove the new
energy equation as the precursor to the development of SOL as a variable. Sections 13 and 14 have accomplished that objective
and Sections 15, 16, and 17 presented a new look at the SOL and observed frequency
shifts of the heavens. The remaining
sections of this paper are to give the reader an appreciation of Atomic Physics
and Energy Systems. It is hoped that the
presentation shows that energy states at the atomic level have opened up a new
world and a new way of looking at radiant energy (light). Total energy is made up of Potential Energy
(PE), Kinetic Energy (KE), and Radiant Energy (RE). Everyone understands PE and KE because they
are dealt with everyday where RE is negligible.
When RE is large, PE and KE are negligible. The energy equation applies in this latter
case and opens the door to many new developments.
This is not a course in Atomic Physics but it is necessary
to review many aspects in order to declare justification for some of the
author's conclusions. Quantum Physics
uses a statistical approach to the energy of the electron in an atom. The new energy equation suggests causality be
also involved. In order to study causality,
it is necessary to look at some of the highlights of atomic physics.
Figure 3 shows the traditional structure for the atom
found in most of the literature. Atoms
are characterized by energy levels, which correspond to various distances of
their electrons from their nuclei. By
absorbing or emitting energy (photon), an electron can move from one to another
of those levels (synonymous with raising or lowering its energy). There are only certain discrete energy levels
for each kind of atom and define the distances for electrons with relation to
the nucleus. The absorbed or emitted
radiation only occurs at certain energies or wave frequencies (an electron
changing its radial position). These are
known as spectral identifying frequencies for a particular atom. Electrons in the atom of Figure 3 are at
different energy level.
Figure 3.
Our modern atom is the result of Bohr’s postulates
followed by the fact that an electron can be treated as a wave (see the work of
DeBroglie). Quantum Physics/Modern
Physics, to distinguish it from Classical Physics, treats electrons as
waves. It defines the boundaries (an
isolated energy state) for treating an electron as a wave. Statistically, a most probable configuration
is assumed for the electron/wave.
Ironically, it is a photon (particle of fixed energy) that is necessary
to alter the boundaries of the electron wave.
Quantum Physics is an extension of Classical Physics, the
Bohr model, and its accompanying postulates.
Atomic particles, including electrons, interact with electromagnetic
waves and the results of these interactions could not be explained in terms of
the Bohr model and Classical Physics.
DeBroglie suggested that matter (atoms) may act in many ways like light,
which is dualistic in nature. Light
sometimes behaves as waves and other times as particles. One way to deal with it was to tie the
electrons and particles to wave concepts.
DeBroglie's went that extra step and equated photon energy to atomic
energy (both considered particles) in the following manner:
|
E = hf = mc2
|
|
Where hf is particulate photon energy and mc2
is particulate energy. And:
|
|
hf = mc(c)
|
|
hf/c = mc
|
|
Note that the two particulate energies equated result in
a wave concept, where:
|
|
Wavelength l = h/mc, mc is momentum of the electron (particle).
|
Wave (Quantum) Mechanics was born and it introduced
partial solutions for atomic phenomena that could not be explained by the Bohr
model. It redefined the nature of the
electron in an atom in terms of a wave and as a particle and accounted for its
probable position in the atom.
At the heart of Quantum Physics is the Shroedinger wave
equation, which can account for atomic particles interacting with electromagnetic
waves and also replaces F = ma (Newton's second law) for motion of a particle
on the atomic scale sizes. In light of DeBroglie's
work (he showed that particle energy is synonymous with wave energy for an
electron), a wave equation was necessary to show how electrons move from place
to place and interact with electromagnetic waves. The Quantum theory specifies certain regions
in which an electron is more or less likely to be found. The electron occupies a position somewhere in
a shell (energy state) with other electrons around the nucleus. There are concentric shells (the number of
shells is determined by the particular element) and each shell represents a
different energy level separated from each other by fixed quantum (E =
hf). For an electron to move from shell
to shell, it is necessary to absorb (for a lower level to a higher) or to give
up (higher level to a lower level) a fixed quantum of energy hf.
Quantum Mechanics answers questions about atoms containing
multiple electrons and their wave/particle duality. It is also a synthesis of two approaches of
when to treat the electron as a particle and when to treat it as a wave. For a better explanation of this statement,
the reader is referred to a Quantum Physics book and all the experiments of
wave/particle duality that ultimately led to the Shroedinger wave equation.
The modern atom is treated in terms of a wave function as
a dependent variable of a wave equation.
Each electron surrounding the nucleus is described in terms of what are
called quantum numbers for its energy state.
There are sets of quantum numbers that specify the way the wave function
varies from point to point in space.
Each set of quantum numbers corresponds to a physically distinct wave
function of a particle (electron/wave) in a box. The quantum numbers are considered Eigen
values in the solution of the wave equation and are an approximation. The Shroedinger wave equation can be solved
for the hydrogen atom only but it is able to predict solutions for atoms with
more than one electron.
The Exclusion Principle insists on the uniqueness of each
electron in an atom and states that the interaction between electrons is more
than a force between electrons. It
describes electron interaction is in terms of isolated energy states, where
each state has a set of quantum numbers, and even this procedure is not simple
or complete.
The following definitions (result of solutions to the wave
equation) assign isolated energy states:
1.
Quantum numbers associated with electrons are
represented by the symbols n, l, and m.
2.
n is the principal or radial quantum number (radius,
defines the shell and kinetic energy)
3.
l is the azimuthal quantum number (orientation of orbit
defining potential energy).
4.
m is the magnetic quantum number addressing the angular
momentum of the electron.
5.
ms is a magnetic moment due to spin of the
electron and is sometimes combined with angular momentum.
Many of the concepts of the Bohr model of the atom have
been preempted by a quantum approach.
However, his third postulate (an electron can only be in a shell in
which the distance around the nucleus is an exact fit for the wavelength of the
electron; 2pR
= nl)
lives on as part of the wave concept of the electron and can actually be
derived from it. An electron must be
considered as some sort of a wave spread out through space and localized at a
point. These principles lead to a wave
equation (Shroedinger's equation) that must be satisfied by an electron in an
atom, subject to boundary conditions determined by phase conditions for a
wave.
In order that the wave may have an exact fit (no standing
waves) on the circumference of the circle (or ellipse) must include some
integral number of wavelengths (see Figure 5a, section 24). Think of an electron as a wave (wave function
as a dependent variable of a wave equation) extending in a circle around the
nucleus. The wavelength of a particle of
mass m, moving with a velocity v, is given according to wave mechanics as: l = h/mv, where: h is Planck's constant and l is
wavelength. Then if R is the radius and
2pR
= n l,
where n = 1, 2, 3, etc. By substitution
it can be proven that this contains the angular momentum and the third Bohr
postulate.
2pR = nh/mv or mvR = nh/2p, but mvR is angular
momentum of an electron and it is observed that the wave mechanical picture
leads to Bohr’s third postulate. The
angular momentum equals some integral multiple of n/2p (see Figure 4).
Figure 4
Restrictions on the quantum numbers and states must be
carefully observed. Because the
Exclusion Principle also states that there can at most be one electron in each
quantum state in an atom. Each principal
energy state for an electron has a combination of quantum numbers and that
combination also decides how the electrons of the atom are distributed. In the normal state electrons in an atom are
at their lowest possible energy level.
By emitting or absorbing fixed amounts of photon energy
(hf), electrons can change their energy state.
When an electron changes its state, there are changes:
1.
There is a radius change as a result of shell change.
2.
There is orientation change (the plane with respect to
the nucleus changes).
3.
The magnetic properties of the atom change.
E = hf is a simple definition for the complex exchange of
energy in an atom. These photons are
detected as the result of an electron changing shells. According to quantum physics, hf by itself
means nothing, unless there is a reference.
Electron "a" exists in shell x and it changes to a new
position in shell y. It has to take on a
new set of quantum numbers because the radial, azimuthal, and magnetic
properties change. But it is not very
practical to follow the electron in this manner.
In dealing with the path of the electrons in an atom (both
Classical and Quantum Physics have gone to great lengths to define them), it is
hard to keep track of all the variables.
It is easy to get lost in the interaction of symbols and theories, i.
e. Quantum numbers, states, classical vs
quantum etc. It is known that electrons
are positioned around the nucleus and that they are wave like in nature as they
travel and that they follow the rules of particles when they change energy
states. Quantum Physics connects state energy
changes of the electron through solutions to a wave equation. The wave equation defines boxes for electrons
in an atom. Each box has tags that
define radial, azimuthal, and magnetic properties of the electron contained
therein. In the solution of the wave
equation, a certain number of these boxes are allowed in each shell. Photon energy (hf) is a fixed amount of
energy that is absorbed or emitted when an electron changes from a box in one
shell to a box in another shell. In
fact, the total number of boxes in a shell is predictable from the relative intensities
of absorption or emission of unique frequencies.
All the electrons of the atom maintain isolated energy
states and are an electron defined by quantum numbers. The electrons can have co-existing
definitions for their energy of state.
All energy states are different but each energy state has a common
characteristic expressed by a field equation.
The atom is considered stable and remains stable. The emission or absorption of a photon hf accomplishes
a change in energy of the electron.
Stability of the atom and equality of forces is dictated by the phase
conditions which are part of the energy equation (Bohr’s third postulate). Spectral frequencies are an effect and the
cause is derived from the new energy equation in terms of radial change, phase,
and the wavelength of the electron in a shell.
The electron treated as a wave has a frequency (only a
single cycle of the sine wave is shown, see Figure 5a), which value puts demand
on the orbit {certain R-value} such that an integral number cycles exactly fit
the orbit. The electron/wave has its
definite frequency and that frequency remains a constant from shell to shell or
Energy State
to Energy State. Imagine the single sine wave as wrapping
around the orbit an even number of times.
For the electron/wave to change energy levels or shells
requires an exchange of energy hfs.
The photon energy and its frequency vary according to the exchange
(distance between the shells). Exact
positioning of the electron in non circular orbits is undefined causing some
natural line broadening during energy exchange.
In most cases these photons are detectable and they define and are
characteristic of the elemental atom. If
the electron wave changes shells, energy must be absorbed or emitted depending
on whether the level change is positive or negative. This exchange of energy is a photon.
Figure 5
Figure 5a demonstrates how the electron wave must position
itself in moving around in its shell to insure proper phase conditions (no
standing waves). The l
shown in Figure 5a is divorced from the l derived from spectral
frequency for the photon energy required for exchange of electrons between
shells. The radius R must change in
multiple of whole numbers in order for this condition to be maintained and 2pR = nl,
where l
is the same as that shown in Figure 5.
The third Bohr postulate has been previously reviewed and
a new concept has been developed for a universal characteristic energy state.
|
The new energy
equation of state E = h eB/G (1)
|
When considering an energy change of state for an electron
expressed in terms of the energy state equation, eB is an energy term for a
single electron in a shell and is an electromagnetic wave and also energy at a
point. What about Newton’s
G? This energy at a point in an atom can
be at only one R-value according to Bohr’s third postulate and subsequently
derived from Quantum Physics considerations.
The position in the shell is some most probable position but the R-value
is not most probable. It has to be definite because of the phase
conditions of the wave. Causality
plays an important role here because energy (hf) defines the R value
change. And the wave of the electron can
fit only one orbit exactly. The electron
wave in an orbit is the same wave from orbit to orbit. Observed spectral frequencies of an atom are
different and are not probable, they actually can be measured. The spectral frequencies occur during the
absorption or emission of energy during atomic activity (e.g. during the
voltage breakdown of a gas or laser activity at the junction of a
semiconductor, etc.). They, in turn,
define or cause the electron positioning according to R-values and phase.
This section looks at gravitational effects as an
important aspect of the electron. In the
past, gravitational effect was considered nil with respect to electrodynamics
forces. This paper presents an ad hoc
approach to the energy equation. It is
found that the energy is inversely proportional to Newton’s
gravity force field and it can be applied universally only if gravity is included.
The following is an energy change of state:
|
E = dE = hfspectral
= heB/G2
-
heB/G1 (2)
|
It is noticed that it requires a photon hf (equation 2) to
change from one energy level to the other, where G1 and G2 define the energy
level or shell. It can be noticed that
at the atomic level the energy state equation can only take on sets of values
consistent with the energy levels of the shells. Equation 1 and 2 are completely general and
can be applied universally where R is a variable without restrictions. The new energy equation was developed in
conjunction with photon theory for the atom but it is not restricted to only
the atom because of its relationship to all energy systems. Sections 13, 14 and 15 developed and
justified an atomic field equation.
There are the implicit potentials and fields of the atom and the effect
of the media having these same potentials and fields make the new equation
universal.
Expansion of knowledge obtained from the Bohr model and
the Quantum approach lead to practical aspects of the atom. It is a cause and effect approach that fulfills
all necessary stability requirements at the atomic level. There are no restrictions or uncertainty
about the shell (thus the radius) where the electron can be found. This approach uses a convolution technique
proving the causes from the effect (spectra measured) and introduces gravitational
effects (necessary R definition). There
are two considerations about R for an electron during energy exchange; one is
the change due the shell change and the other is the change in R that results
in no standing waves in the random planes.
The two R's are related and can be solved for in terms of each
other. The gravitational force on the
electron remains negligible but the radius of the electron position plays an
important roll in the stability concept of the atom. The field concept for the atom dictates the dependence
on e,
B, and G internal and external to the atom.
This has opened the door for the interpretation of observed frequencies
(through a telescope, on the moon, in water, whatever media of electromagnetic
wave travel) as a function of environment and a variable "c".
An atom can be a radiating source. Since the isolated energy states are in terms
of fields, all internal and external fields that add or subtract like vectors
with each other effect them. Frequency exchanges at the atomic level encounter
shifts as a function of the media in which they are being observed because of
field variations. Radiated photons are
not restricted to quantum jumps. All
electromagnetic radiation can be explored using this new energy equation that
has been developed at the atomic level in terms of fields. Field energy interacts with all fields of the
universe.
This energy equation ties all fields intrinsic and
extrinsic to the atom and to all electromagnetic waves. It has far reaching consequences when dealing
with Doppler shifts and Gravity shifts, which have been addressed.
|
The energy
equation of state E = h eB/G
|
Time varying electric fields give rise to time varying
magnetic fields and vice versa and in the dynamic case it is impossible to
distinguish between electric and magnetic energy (cause and effect). This proves to be the case at the atomic
level and the energy equation demonstrates that fact. These characteristics and G (not probable
states) are not dictated by quantum numbers and probability. They are independent. The Poynting vector, eB defines energy (flow) of
a wave at a point and it is in perfect agreement with the quantum treatment of
an electron (eB’s
source). It also extends the new
equation to include all electromagnetic waves.
The new energy equation for an electron in terms of fields has a personality
of its own with unrestricted degrees of freedom.
It can be stated that the energy state equation can be
treated as a separate entity and can be considered as a wave itself just like
hf. The wave can be investigated and
defined under various external field conditions. Separate
energy states and their fields and force field characteristics are general and
universal and follow the mathematical developments of this paper. They are universal and apply independent of
the atomic level, from which the energy equation was developed. This energy concept has the capability of
presenting energy diagrams for any type of radiation in terms of the Poynting
vector, gravitational force fields and radial distance. This is extremely helpful in studying the
heavens and the determination of Doppler and Gravitational shifts.
This paper began by reviewing Einstein's theories of
relativity. Questions were raised concerning
Einstein's postulate: The SOL is a
universal constant. Because of this
postulate, time and distance measurements become questionable and subjective. This paper has challenged that postulate and
preempted it (SOL is a variable) with the purpose of returning these
measurements to an objective real world.
An energy equation was developed from the intrinsic
properties of the atom extending Quantum Physics. At the atomic level the energy equation is
considered as an energy equation of state that coexists with the wave equation
and quantum numbers.
In dealing with radiation effects of the atom in the
macroscopic world the external fields add or subtract like vectors with those
intrinsic fields produced in the atom and override them. When considering energy states and
characteristics of energy states, the energy equation can be applied
universally to radiations and their frequencies.
The new concept has been derived with its roots at the
atomic level:
E = h eB/G (1).
The beauty of this equation in terms of fields allows like fields of the
media to add with it and allows it to be applied universally.
From equation 1: c = Sl /2pG (2) applies
in all materials as well as all media.
This variable "c" preempts the postulate the SOL
is a universal constant. Time and distance
measurements can now remain in the objective real world.
This new concept has opened the door to many new
possibilities. Just the frequency shift
equation that has been derived presents many variations of new investigations
for observing the heavens. Section 17
shows the full derivation of the following equation using the new concept.
|
df/dR = 1/2p
[-2kvradial/GR2 + 3e2/pm (vradial/c)]
|
|
Change in l)/l =
vradial/c º Doppler shift and the vradial/G term indicates
a shift due to GFF
|
According to the literature frequencies are sometimes
attributed to gravity and sometimes Doppler, the above equation indicates a
combination of the two. This Gravity
shift is different from the so called “Red Shift” talked about in the
literature. “Red Shift” used in that
context refers to whether the object is moving away from the observer. In the above equation the Gravity term refers
to the value for the gravity of the object being observed.
As a result of the new concept, equation (1) above,
scientists may want to reevaluate probable states for an electron in the
atom. It can be considered an isolated
energy state. Quantum Physics suggest a
most probable configuration for the atom.
However, phase conditions for an electron treated as a wave suggest
causality because R (distance of the electron to the nucleus and between
shells) is not a probable condition. Spectral frequencies are characteristic of
atoms and are tags defining the atom.
They are fixed and therefore the R values must be fixed. Energy states of electrons including the
Exclusion Principle are not threatened by this conclusion.
These new concepts are a new challenge for the scientific
community. New concepts represent
progression and are the result of questioned progression in our present
day. Politics, intellectual comfort
zones, and complacency (we have arrived, don't question anything) stifle
creativity and new beginnings. May we as
scientists keep an open mind and always embrace new frontiers.
The old challenge of a point of reference has been solved
by our modern day technology. There are
synchronous satellites at points around the globe (result of Newton's
laws). These points are at absolute rest with respect to the earth. They can now be the point of repeatability
for measuring the SOL on this planet.
Data for the SOL on other planets, moons, stars etc. must be gathered to
complete and verify the new concept.
