Speed of Light
1.1
Light Properties
Our new energy equation is a new vision and becomes our starting point for investigating known concepts in the science world. In this article, we would like to start out by evaluating light and its speed.
Implicit in Maxwell’s equations is
the constant speed of electromagnetic waves in a vacuum. From his equations comes a constant “c” which
is the ratio of unit size between electrostatic and electromagnetic systems. Einstein’s postulates that “c”, the Speed of Light (SOL) is a universal constant. Even though “c” is a universal truth, it
does not make the Speed of Light (SOL) a universal constant in all media of
travel. The speed of electromagnetic
waves in space is a constant and in the same manner, the waves are a constant
of a different value in other media. SOL
is not a universal constant for all media of transmittal but varies according
to electric permittivity and magnetic permeability of the media of
transmittal. In addition, another
variable is presented in this article because of the new energy concept. Moreover, the variation of SOL for different
media remains factual according to the laws of optics.
According to Optics, SOL changes
whenever a new media of travel is encountered by the wave. Trains of light waves change direction and
speed as they cross a boundary surface (one medium to another). The change in direction is as a refracted
wave. In addition, we know that Snell’s
law expresses these changes mathematically.
It is important because it points out another variable for the SOL that
was unknown when there was controversy about a reference for it.
Maxwell’s works, equations,
electromagnetic waves, and speed of the waves were all a precursor to
Optics. The laws of Optics and their governing
definitions present questions as to the SOL being an initial condition. There were many contemporary scientists who
had an understanding of optics and light and who attempted to measure its
characteristics but they had enough to do in understanding Maxwell’s works. Einstein and his contemporaries who denied
1.2 Light Properties
What is light and what is its speed? Experiments have revealed that light or electromagnetic radiation possesses both properties of waves (mathematically determined by Maxwell) and properties of typical particles (photons defined by Planck and experimented with by Einstein). During the first quarter of the 20th century, there was controversy within the scientific community about the difference. The problem has been resolved and the two (waves and photons) can be dealt with interchangeably.
Light waves can be absorbed, diffracted, dispersed and can undergo interference phenomena. Do particles of light have the same wavelike characteristics? Yes. Their wavelike properties can be computed by assuming the photons to behave like waves having DeBroglie wavelength (λ = h/mv). In this article conclusions about the speed of waves and photons are reviewed and the new energy equation presents a new look at SOL. They differ with Einstein’s postulate and his necessary conclusions.
It is important because
Einstein’s postulate about “c” is set-up as a measurement standard. It interferes with the definition for time
and distance. According to Einstein, “c”
is a universal constant and it has changed how the scientific world defines
time and distance of a system at some very fast speed. In his world, it is necessary for time and
distance to adjust under all conditions for “c” to remain a universal
constant. The speed at which adjustment
becomes necessary for measuring time and distance is a mathematical definition
and proven by conjecture only. In
contrast to Einstein,
Maxwell was able to measure the speed of these electromagnetic waves. Since these waves were faster than anything known, the scientific world looked for something with which to reference them. Did they have a media of travel as sound waves do? An experiment (Michelson/Morley) was setup to determine their media (the ether per Maxwell) of travel. If the finding were as expected the media travel for light was to be the reference for SOL. The Michelson/Morley experiment failed and the scientific community was looking for an answer.
At the time,
Einstein created the controversy
when he took exception to the results of the Michelson/Morley experiment. He considered it a failure and he postulated
that the “c” is relative to nothing making it a universal constant.
Today's technologies allow the scientist to measure the SOL in many different media of transmittal. The SOL is a constant in space, it is a constant in our atmosphere, it is a constant on the moon, it is a constant in water and it is a constant in various types of glass etc. Its constant value is different for each of the above media. SOL is a constant but it is not a universal constant independent of transmittal media (per Einstein). Points of virtual absolute rest via synchronous satellites exist today and are references for the measurement of the speed of electromagnetic radiation. From these fixed points, SOL can be measured according to direction, North and South, East and West, longitude, latitude and spin of the earth.
In bridging the gap between
If it is assumed that the tenet (“c” a universal constant), the intellect dictates that the mathematics are not right (time and distance must change or the dimensions of the system must change to ensure that Einstein’s postulate holds).
If “c” = ds/dt = a constant
Then d2s/dt2 = 0 = acceleration of light
but light is known to bend under certain circumstances
therefore it has a component of acceleration
What does it all mean? It is a mathematical and intellectual necessity. The SRT necessitates new abstract thoughts that want to change our previously gained knowledge of experience
1.3 Speed of Light in Different Media
According to Optics, light speed changes as a wave enters a new media of travel. In general, a train of light waves is partially reflected and they change direction as they cross the boundary surface or change from one medium to another medium. The change in direction defines a refracted wave. Every material has an index of refraction.
The index of refraction of a medium is the property usually tabulated rather than the SOL in the medium. The ratio of the sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is equal to the ratio of the velocities in the two media.
Snell’s Law expresses it mathematically.
Snell’s Law
n
sinα = n’ sinα’
Where α and α’ are the angles between a light beam and the normal to the interface between the two media of indices n and n’. The index of refraction n = c/v where “c” is the SOL and in all literature is considered Einstein’s classical universal constant.
It is a reference but there is nothing magic about it. It is a way of comparing the speed of electromagnetic radiation. It follows that v/v' = n'/n, where "v" is velocity of propagation in one medium and "v'" represents the velocity of propagation in the other medium. “v” and “v’” could be SOL in our atmosphere compared to space or to the velocity in some substance.
The scientific community is programmed to think of "c" as the SOL in space and as a "universal constant" and it applies wherever it is measured. The SOL in space is a constant for that medium as determined by Maxwell. Constant values for the SOL change contingent on the medium (e.g. SOL in water compared to SOL in our atmosphere, compared glass materials etc).
It is an established fact that the SOL in a material substance depends on wavelength and hence its index of refraction is a function of wavelength. "v" varies according to f x l or velocity equals frequency times wavelength. For a medium change frequencies do not change. Therefore, the wavelength must change. In addition, any substance that offers resistance to SOL displays dispersive properties for light with an index of refraction that is a function of wavelength. A prism separates white light into its components of red through violet. Deviation of a prism increases with increasing index of refraction and the index of refraction is a function of wavelength. Thus violet is deviated the most and red least. The speed of light in water is 1/4 of that in our atmosphere giving an offset to objects in water because wavelength is 1/4 of that in the atmosphere (For further explanation the reader is referred to any physics book on Optics that deals with reflection and refraction of light waves).
The frequencies of light we observe, whether in a vacuum or other medium, are functions of velocity and wavelength, v = fl. It is not a simple function of E = hf. All media that allow the transmittal of light (electromagnetic radiation) are dispersive in nature. The SOL in all substances depends on wavelength and all media offer some resistance to flow or transmittal of electromagnetic radiation. All media have a dielectric constant and a magnetic permeability, which cause the speed of light to change. Besides working out a constant for the speed of electromagnetic waves, Maxwell recognized the speed dependence on the electric and magnetic properties of the media. He incorporated an explanation for them in his work. These properties (dielectric constant) and (magnetic permeability) cannot be divorced from wavelength changes because of the resistance they offer to flow. They are intrinsic to electric fields and magnetic fields, respectively. They are an integral part of the wave equation derived from Maxwell’s equations.
Relationships derived by Maxwell are very much part of electromagnetic radiation and its variation.
c (vacuum) = 1/square root ofÎ0m0, Î0 is the dielectric constant (space)
m0 is the magnetic permeability (space)
Zintrinsic = square root of m/Î, 377 ohms for free space
c/v = square root of Îm/Î0m0, Where v represents the speed
of radiation in different media
These relationships did not assume “c” is a universal constant. They are a reference for measuring the effect of electricity and magnetic properties of the media of transmittal. In various media, the wavelength, frequency, and radiation speed will differ according to the variations predicted by these equations. These considerations show that the speed of light varies and a conversion exists for all media of travel. In addition, from optics, it can be stated that SOL is a function of the media (can be space, water, various glass types, planets stars, etc., and according to our new development (section 3.4-another medium is gravity) in which it travels. Light can also be resolved, dispersed and undergo interference which constitutes SOL variation. The variation of the speed is characterized and dependent on the index of refraction of the media.
1.4 “c” Variation
the New Vision article developed and derived our new energy equation E = heB/G. It applies universally because the potentials and fields of an atom add like vectors with like potentials and fields of the medium in which they are positioned. It is the connection between the microscopic world of quantum and the world of forces, as we know them. Simple mathematics is used for the derivation of “c” from the energy equation.
E = h/2π S/G, where S ş eB (Poynting vector)
and E = hf (photon energy)
E = hf = h/2π S/G
f = S/2πG = c/l
where "c" is velocity for some medium
and l is wavelength
SOL = Sl/2πG (1)
Change in SOL is a function of l/G. The constant value for G changes for each moon, planet, star etc. and l varies accordingly because frequency does not change (understandable because index of refraction of a medium of electromagnetic wave flow depends on wavelength). This treatment is especially important for studying frequency shift, movements, intensity variations of heavenly bodies and all aspects of cosmology. Astronomy, cosmology, and frequency shifts relate to the new energy concept. Equation 1 proclaims:
1.
SOL is inversely proportional to
2. The SOL is zero for infinite gravity (black holes).
3. SOL varies from medium to medium (medium = gravity).
Variation in the SOL can be approached in the same manner as the way the SOL varies between media using Snell’s law (section 3.3).
Substituting for SOL v/v’ = n’/n = lG’/l’G where G and G’ are two different media for electromagnetic radiation transmittal.
From medium to medium, the SOL
varies inversely as a function G (gravity force field of
SOL varies according to f x l or velocity equals frequency times wavelength. In addition, any substance that offers resistance to SOL displays dispersive properties for light with an index of refraction that is a function of wavelength. All media that allow the transmittal of light (electromagnetic radiation) are dispersive in nature. All media have a dielectric constant and a magnetic permeability, which cause the speed of light to change. To educate ourselves more, consider the following and the variables involved.
SOL = Sl/2πG (1)
For any change is "c" there is a variation in l/G. But G is a constant for each moon, planet, star etc. so l must vary.
For mathematical convenience and not confused with “c”, SOL is defined as φ and will be used interchangeably with SOL.
Differentiating equation (1)
dφ = dφ/dl + dφ/dG
Solving for the above partial derivatives:
dφ = S/2πG - Sl/π G2
For constant G, dφ/dG = 0
And dφ = dφ/dl = S/2πG
The change in φ is inversely proportional to gravity force field G. G varies for each moon, planet, star, quasar etc.
If the earth is a reference the speed of light changes for each planet, moon, star, galaxy, black hole, etc. The speed of light increases on the moon, decreases on Jupiter and is zero for a black hole etc. Between the planets, the stars, or any other entity with a fixed gravity, there is a gradient.
dφ/dG = -Sl/πG2.
In this, case l and G are varying. So in our solar system both variables must be considered between planets, moons etc. They both have an effect on the variation of SOL. The speed of light is a variable and has no upper limit. It is a function of the properties of our galaxy, solar system, and universe. A rejuvenated world of absolute space and time is now a reality. SOL is not a universal constant. The task now remains to understand and harness the gravity gradient as a means of travel.
1.5 Waves and Photons
SOL is a variable. Maxwell’s works, Optics, and the development of the new energy equation are conclusive and indicate SOL is a variable. SOL as a variable keeps time and distance in the objective real world. The new energy equation proves to be a common thread to a variable SOL as well as frequency shifts, gravity and energy.
φ = Sl/2πG (1)
SOL, as a variable, depends on a radiation term “S” (Poynting vector) and λ/G. Brightness and frequency shifts of objects whose radiation sources are photons evaluate and predict the properties of the heavens. The article “Exploring the Universe” gives a thorough investigation and couples it to astronomy and cosmology.
If the speed of light is a constant for given conditions but not a universal constant or an initial condition, what are the conditions? Light bends due to gravity so it must have a component of acceleration, which denies “c” as a universal constant. It is also known that the speed of light changes in different media and materials where it is normally slower than in a vacuum. The speed for the different media can be related through Snell’s law and the SOL for photons is related to the frequency (f) and wavelength (l) of light by f = c/l. Actually, there is nothing sacred about light having a variation of speed. What is nice is equation 1 is common to and relates to all of its conditions (waves as well as photons).
Snell’s law and optics addresses the changing media where the speed changes but frequency remains constant (prism). According to equation (1), G of each entity (star, quasar, moon etc.) is different, has an index of refraction, and constitutes a medium change.
Maxwell using constants of free space for electric permittivity Î0 and magnetic permeability m0 has developed the SOL for light waves mathematically.
SOL (any media) = 1/√Îm/Î0m0- where √ is square root radical, Î is electric permittivity and m is magnetic permeability for any media of transmittal, Î0 and m0 are for space.
1.6 "c" A Variable
The new energy equation develops a variable SOL. It varies in the same manner and in conjunction with the variation due to Snell’s law. From medium to medium, the SOL varies inversely as a function G (gravity force field), and since frequency remains constant, λ varies accordingly.
The SOL is a variable with no upper limit. It is a reference for each medium. It is a function of the properties of our galaxy, solar system, and universe. A rejuvenated world of absolute space and time remains and needs no adjustments.
SOL for photons: Sl/2πG where S ≡ eB
(Poynting vector), λ = wavelength and
G = GFF = km/R2, k
is a constant, m is mass and R is the straight-line distance to other objects
in the field.
SOL for waves can vary according to the optics characteristics and the calculations of Maxwell. It is convenient here to talk about photons because the derivation came from a single quantum, in a similar manner to DeBroglie’s work. On an average, photon energy is equivalent to wave energy for light. The conclusions of the previous two sections provide facts disputing light speed being a universal constant.
Today's technologies allow the scientist to measure the speed of light in many different media of transmittal. The speed of light is a constant in space, it is a constant on earth, it is a constant on the moon, etc. Its constant value is different for each of the above media. The speed of light is a constant. The constant value of SOL differs according to the media travel, our new development and Snell’s law..
Since the SOL is a variable, a
conflict no longer exists between
1.7 Fixed Reference
Maxwell defined a media of transmittal (Ether) for the travel of light. Scientist of his era hypothesized that It is possible to measure the speed of light relative to that media. An experiment by Michelson/Morley attempted to measure the speed of light relative to the earth's surface and the velocity of the earth relative to the Ether. The plan was to name the Ether a reference frame of absolute rest. The experiment failed.
With the technology, we have today; we can definitely prove the variance in the SOL. A suggestion for measuring the SOL in various directions on earth follows in section 1.8. It is possible from points of virtual absolute rest with respect to the earth. Remember, the Michelson/Morley experiment, which failed, was attempting to find a point of absolute rest for referencing the SOL. Today we have those points of virtual absolute rest above the earth (synchronous satellites). Initiation of measurements from these points instructs us on the variation of SOL in all directions.
1.8 Directional Variation
Information about our new energy
and its development shows that the speed of light is a variable and depends on
the Poynting vector (radiation at a point),
The top view (Figure 1) shows four stations N, S, E, and W. The circle can have as many stations as the directions required. The plan is to measure how long it takes the light to travel the distance D. To avoid interference of the laser beams only one set of stations powered up during the measurement (N/S, E/W, NE/SW, etc.). Repeat the measurement for as many directions desired.
1.8.1 For Figure 2:
At the Ground level Station 1 is the W detector and Station 2 is the E detector shown in the top view.
For convenience, N and S detectors are unnecessary in this ground level view.
For this measurement, only the E and W stations have power.
Distances A, B and D are defined and A = B.
Stations 1 and 2 have identical transceivers, lasers, and laser detectors.
Detectors are matched (Lasers, switching devices, phase and anything involved in measuring time and frequency).
1.9 Timing Diagram
At some time, T a trigger is sent to the synchronous satellite. It initiates an RF pulse at time T1 to be sent to the ground stations 1 and 2. The RF pulse is detected at stations 1 and 2 at times TA and TB within the accuracy of the positioning of the synchronous satellite (It is assumed that TA = TB; it may require adjustments [matching] in the electronics and positioning of the antenna). Coincident with these times, the lasers and the laser detectors receive power. TD - TA or TD - TB is the time required for light to travel distance D in the E/W direction.
The time-required for light to travel the distance D is measured for all directions on the circle of that shown on the top view. By placing a station/detector at the center of the circle (directly below the synchronous satellite), the radial speed of light is found. In this manner a family measurements depicting variation in light speed as a function direction is accomplished.
At time TD, a signal is sent back to the synchronous satellite and all the variables are separated there. The reason for this is it allows the speed of light to be measured at any longitude and latitude desired and the variation of the surface of the earth at that point need not be considered. Representative values for TD - TA or TD - TB are obtained, the distance is fixed and known and the SOL can be calculated. The synchronous satellite is the fixed point reference with respect to the earth and is used as a data collecting point. The data, in turn can be transmitted to a central station on earth.
Conclusions
According to our study and conversion of the new energy concept to a form for measuring SOL, it is conclusive that it is a variable. It is a new challenge. It denies Einstein’s postulate about the “c” being a universal constant. A new way of defining and measuring SOL makes everything complete. It is important that the solution expand our knowledge and fits unquestionably with the existing scientific world. New concepts represent progression and are the result of new ideas that present potential of expansion in our present day. Politics, intellectual comfort zones, and complacency (we have arrived, do not question anything) stifle creativity and new beginnings. May we as scientists keep an open mind and always embrace new frontiers. This author is convinced that SOL as a variable opens the field for many more advances in our science world. The remainder of this book presents some of the ways perspectives of other disciplines may change.
Our modern day technology solves
an old challenge of a point of reference.
There are synchronous satellites at points around the globe (result of
Section 3.4 derives, develops, and equates the energy equation to photon energy.
SOL = Sl/2πG (1)
SOL as a variable depends on a
radiation term (Poynting vector) and λ/G.
Maxwell’s SOL calculated for a vacuum makes no claim to being a universal
constant. His SOL varies according to
media (water, another planet, a star, galaxies, and substance that allows transmittal
of electromagnetic waves). Since SOL is
a variable, a conflict no longer exists between